From COVID to Cola: how public health services take on population-wide health challenges

Healthy populations depend on oversight from public health services, which protect and improve the lives of people on a ‘big picture’ scale. Let’s take a look at the world of public health and what it does for us.

What is public health?

Public health is the science of protecting and improving people’s health at the scale of populations. That might be the people living in a local neighbourhood, a whole country or an entire region of the world. Public health work includes encouraging people to live healthier lives, carrying out research into preventing diseases and injuries, and detecting, preventing and responding to infectious diseases such as HIV, the COVID-19 pandemic or seasonal ‘flu.

The National Health Service explains that:

“It is about every single person out there. It’s about ensuring that people understand the choices they are making and the impact they are having on their health in the long term. But it’s also about making sure that when they do come into contact with healthcare services that those services are appropriate and of a good standard and that evidence-based healthcare is used wherever possible,”

Public health is also about looking at the wider health inequalities there are in society, whether that is people living with debt or on very low incomes, poor housing or mental health problems. Public health services’ work to tackle challenges like these is essential for securing healthier futures for populations of people.

The ‘three Ps’ of public health

The field of public health is sometimes divided into three main areas which overlap with one another. These are the so-called ‘three Ps’ of public health, which are:

Protection

Protection against diseases involves detecting, preventing and reducing the effects of infectious diseases and of environmental, chemical and radiological physical threats. Central to health protection is collaborating with decision-makers at local and global levels.

Prevention

Prevention is a fundamental principle of modern health care. Disease prevention in public health includes primary and secondary prevention, i.e. stopping a disease from gaining a foothold in the body and counteracting and limiting its effects after diagnosis. It also includes efforts to minimise the harms and complications that diseases cause.

Promotion

Health promotion is the process of giving people more control over their own health so that they can improve it. It’s one of the aims of the World Health Organization (WHO), which works to improve overall population health by helping people reduce the risks posed by smoking tobacco, consuming alcohol and not doing enough physical activity. The WHO’s health promotion goals, widely adopted across the world, were laid out in the 1986 Ottawa Charter.

What does the World Health Organization (WHO) do?

The WHO works globally to promote health, keep the world safe, and serve vulnerable people everywhere. Its goals are to:

Achieve universal health coverage for a billion more people by helping more people to access essential primary healthcare and medicines, making the cost of healthcare more sustainable, training the public health workforce and supporting people’s participation in national health policies.

Protect a billion more people from health emergencies by identifying, mitigating and managing risks, preventing emergencies and supporting the development of tools and interventions needed to fight outbreaks, spotting and responding to urgent health emergencies and helping health agencies and providers to deliver health services in difficult to reach and vulnerable parts of the world.

Provide a further billion people with better health and well-being by addressing social determinants of health, promoting approaches that cross different sectors, and prioritising health in all policies and healthy settings.  

Who oversees public health in the UK?

UK government public health services are managed by the UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA) and the Office for Health Improvement and Disparities (OHID), which replaced Public Health England in October 2021.

The UKHSA is an executive agency sponsored by the Department of Health and Social Care and collaborates with relevant agencies in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. It’s responsible for protecting every member of every community from the impact of health threats, including infectious diseases as well as chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear incidents. The agency leads public health science and operations at national and local levels, as well as on the global stage. Some of the UKHSA’s specific responsibilities include health protection and planning and carrying out the UK’s response to external health threats such as pandemics.

The Office for Health Improvement and Disparities (OHID), on the other hand, focuses on reducing the pressures on the healthcare system and on society of preventable illness and disease. It has a particular focus on the places and communities where there are the biggest disparities in health.

As part of Department of Health and Social Care, OHID brings together expert advice, analysis and evidence to develop and roll out health policy that improves the health of people in the UK. Its priorities include:

  • identifying groups and areas within the UK where ill health is worst
  • taking action on the biggest preventable risk factors for ill health and premature death including tobacco, obesity and harmful use of alcohol and drugs
  • working with the NHS and local government to improve access to the services which can help, as early as possible
  • working closely with government, communities, industry and employers to act on the wider factors that have an impact on people’s health, such as work, environmental health, housing and education. One example of this is profiling sexual and reproductive health across the UK to support local authorities and public health leads in monitoring the sexual and reproductive health of their population
  • drive innovation in health improvement, harnessing the best of technology, analytics, and innovations in policy and delivery to help deliver change where it is needed most.

Sugar, cervical cancer and smoking: three successful public health initiatives

Stoptober

An annual NHS campaign that takes place in October, Stoptober aims to persuade smokers to give up cigarettes for one month. The idea is that if smokers can give up for October, they can continue to go without cigarettes and ultimately live smoke-free. The campaign is underpinned by robust evidence from University College London which shows that if a smoker can quit for 28 days, they are five times more likely to stop smoking long-term.

Key to the campaign’s success is that it motivates and encourages smokers along their journey towards giving up for good through the official Stoptober app, daily emails, access to online communities of other people trying to stop smoking, and a personalised quit plan. These resources even give smokers insights into how much money they are saving by cutting cigarettes out of their lives. Over the 11 years it has been running, the campaign has helped over 2 million people to give up smoking.

The ‘sugar tax’

Research carried out in 2018 showed that British children were on average consuming double the recommended amount of sugar each day. Sugary soft drinks (for example squashes and fizzy drinks) are the top source of children’s sugar intake; not surprising given that a single can of cola contains nine teaspoons of sugar. Eating and drinking too much sugar can lead to obesity and decayed teeth. Research also shows that children who are overweight are more likely to remain so as adults, increasing risk of preventable diseases like diabetes and heart disease.  

As part of the UK government’s plan to tackle childhood obesity, a Soft Drinks Industry Levy (SDIL), also nicknamed the ‘sugar tax’, was introduced in April 2018. Soft drink manufacturers must now pay a charge for drinks containing over 8g of sugar. At the time the levy was launched, nearly half of the soft drinks market had already reformulated their products to reduce levels of sugar in order to avoid charges. This public health practice has also signalled a shift towards greater recognition of the role to be played by the food and drink industry in enabling healthier choices. Revenue from the levy is being invested in programmes to encourage more exercise and balanced diets in school-age children.

Vaccinating young people against cervical cancer

Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) is a group of common viruses that are passed on through sexual contact, certain forms of HPV cause abnormal changes in the cells that can sometimes turn into cancers, including cervical cancer.

A public health programme to protect young people against HPV with the aim of reducing cervical cancer rates was launched in England in 2008. Girls aged 12-13 years began to be offered routine immunisation with the Cervarix vaccination against HPV, with a catch-up programme for girls aged 14 to 18 from 2008 to 2010. A study published over a decade later in The Lancet showed that the immunisation programme reduced cervical cancer rates by 34% in girls vaccinated at age 16 -18 and a massive 87% in girls vaccinated at age 12 to 13 compared with girls who had not been vaccinated. Now, all children aged 12-13 are routinely vaccinated, not just girls. Overall, the hugely successful HPV immunisation programme has almost eliminated cervical cancer in women born since Sept 1, 1995.

Skills for a healthier, more sustainable world

Now more than ever, public sector organisations involve fast-paced change, and face pressure to deliver more with less, to navigate complex policy contexts, and to enhance performance while sustaining public service values, across everything from public health functions to local authorities. The University of York’s MBA Public Sector Management is a 100% online course designed to equip early- and mid-career professionals in the public or non-profit sector to take on these challenges and progress their career.

As a York MBA student, you’ll learn from international, research-active academics at an elite Russell Group university – and study part-time via distance learning so that you can apply what you learn directly to your current role. On this MBA you’ll develop into a global citizen, capable of influencing organisations to build sustainable communities, fairer societies and a cleaner environment. What is more, you’ll grow your global network by engaging with other MBA students across the world.

How your mindset could affect your employability

The global economic downturn has created a more competitive job market, which means that job seekers will typically need to offer more than just their technical skills, qualifications, and work experience in order to secure desired positions or advance their careers. While these requirements are important, job candidates who can also demonstrate positive mindset qualities will often stand out against the competition and appear more attractive to employers.

What are mindset qualities?

Mindset qualities refer to the beliefs, attitudes, and thought patterns that shape how people perceive and approach different aspects of their lives, including their careers. Two prominent mindset qualities are the fixed mindset and the growth mindset.

  • Fixed mindset. People with fixed or negative mindsets tend to believe that their abilities and intelligence are static. They may avoid challenges or fear failure, and often find it difficult to persevere when faced with challenges. This kind of mindset can hinder both personal and professional growth.
  • Growth mindset. On the other hand, those with a growth mindset will embrace challenges and view them as opportunities for learning and development. They believe that their abilities and intelligence can be developed through effort and dedication. This kind of mindset fosters resilience, adaptability, and a willingness to learn from mistakes.

The difference between mindset and personality

It’s important to note that mindset is distinct from personality. Personality traits are relatively stable characteristics, while mindset relates to one’s beliefs and attitudes, which can fluctuate over time.

What are the benefits of having a good mindset at work?

A positive mindset can offer numerous advantages, all of which can enhance employability skills. 

  • Enhanced problem-solving. A growth mindset enables a more proactive approach to problem-solving. When faced with challenges or obstacles in the workplace, people with a growth mindset are more likely to explore different solutions, adapt, and persevere until a resolution is found.
  • Improved communication skills. A positive mindset can contribute to better verbal and non-verbal communication. People who believe in their ability to learn and grow are often more open to feedback, which can lead to improved interpersonal relationships with co-workers and supervisors, and better professional conversations.
  • Greater adaptability. A growth mindset enables people to better adapt to new technologies, work processes and industry trends.
  • Soft skills development. A growth mindset fosters the development of important soft skills, including time management, emotional intelligence and teamwork.
  • A more positive attitude. A positive, more understanding mindset contributes to a more positive attitude, which in turn creates more constructive work environments. Optimistic people tend to boost team morale, inspire their colleagues, and generally create a more pleasant atmosphere.

Which mindset qualities are important to employers?

Employers place a lot of value on employees who have a growth mindset or similar qualities because they recognise that people who believe in their potential for growth and development are more likely to bring a proactive, problem-solving approach to their work. 

Some common examples of sought-after mindset qualities include:

  • Willingness to learn. Employers often favour candidates who demonstrate a commitment to continuous learning. These are the people who are eager to learn new skill sets and can more easily adapt to changing work environments. 
  • Resilience. Resilience is the ability to bounce back from setbacks and challenges, which can be a powerful skill in modern workplaces. 
  • Openness to feedback. Feedback is essential for professional development, and people with a positive or growth mindset are typically more receptive to feedback, seeing it as an opportunity to improve.
  • Teamwork. Teamwork is a fundamental aspect of many job roles, which means employers tend to prefer people who can collaborate, share ideas, and support their colleagues and team members.

How to develop a more positive mindset

Anyone can improve their employability by focusing on developing a growth mindset. In doing so, they can enhance their prospects in the job market and make a more lasting, positive impression on potential employers and hiring managers, both in job application materials, such as CVs and cover letters, and during job interviews. 

It’s worth remembering that a positive mindset is not something that happens overnight – it’s a continuous process. It’s also something that anyone can develop; just because someone currently has a fixed mindset doesn’t mean they can’t develop more positive mindset qualities. 

Develop a more positive mindset by:

  • Building self-awareness. The process begins by assessing your current mindset. Are you more inclined towards a fixed or a growth mindset? This understanding is the first step towards making positive changes.
  • Embracing challenges. Rather than shying away from challenges, they should be viewed as opportunities for growth. Step out of your comfort zone and take on tasks that push your boundaries.
  • Learning from mistakes. Mistakes are a natural part of life and work. Instead of dwelling on them, reflect on what you can learn from your failures and how you can apply those lessons in the future.
  • Seeking feedback. Welcome feedback from colleagues, managers and mentors. Use constructive feedback as a tool for personal and professional growth.
  • Setting goals. Establish clear, achievable goals for professional development, which will give you a sense of direction and purpose.
  • Continuously learning. Commit to lifelong learning. Stay updated with sector trends, build up your skills, and acquire new skills through training and development programmes.
  • Building and maintaining a positive attitude. Practice gratitude and focus on the positive aspects of your life and career. Surround yourself with people who inspire and support your growth while avoiding negative influences that may discourage you from pursuing your goals or encourage you to give up.

Grow your mindset and prepare for leadership

Develop your professional adaptability and employability across industries, functions, and roles with the 100% online MSc Finance, Leadership and Management programme from the University of York. This flexible Masters programme will give you valuable insight into your own professional development while building your problem-solving and communication skills.

Your studies will prepare you to respond rapidly and effectively to changing business and financial environments, and upon graduation you will receive affiliate CMI membership and be awarded a Level 7 certificate in Strategic Management and Leadership Practice.

Modules on this programme cover topics such as:

  • Operations management
  • Business finance 
  • Leading and managing people
  • Marketing and ethics in global business
  • Corporate financial strategy
  • Investment management
  • Asset pricing

How to become an entrepreneur

In today’s rapidly evolving world, entrepreneurship has become an attractive career path for many people. In fact, in the UK alone, over 750,000 new companies are incorporated each year. The allure of creating something from scratch, being your own boss, and potentially reaping substantial rewards is understandably compelling.

But how does someone embark on this journey and become an entrepreneur? In this blog, we’ll explore the fundamentals of becoming an entrepreneur, from understanding the different types of entrepreneurship to identifying the key characteristics that set successful entrepreneurs apart.

What are the four types of entrepreneurship?

Entrepreneurship is typically broken down into four different types. Each of these types have their own unique approach and objectives and will suit different people in different ways.

Small business entrepreneurship

Small business entrepreneurship is perhaps the most common form of entrepreneurship – the latest figures show there are 5.5m small and medium-sized businesses (SMEs) in the UK, making up 99.9% of the total private sector business population.

Small business owners tend to have a local or niche target market by focusing on providing goods and services that meet specific needs. Some examples of this include restaurants, boutique shops, and service providers like plumbers or accountants.

Scalable startup entrepreneurship

Scalable startup entrepreneurship is characterised by a strong emphasis on growth and scalability. These entrepreneurs aim to build businesses that have the potential to grow rapidly and capture a significant market share.

Startups often seek external funding and employ innovative technologies or business models. Tech giants like Facebook, Google and Airbnb are prime examples of scalable startups.

Large company entrepreneurship (intrapreneurship)

Large company entrepreneurship, or intrapreneurship, involves individuals within an existing organisation who take the initiative to develop new products, services or processes. These ‘intrapreneurs’ display the same qualities as traditional entrepreneurs, but operate within the framework of a larger company. 

Intrapreneurship fosters innovation within a current workforce and enables existing organisations to stay competitive in a dynamic market.

Social entrepreneurship

Social entrepreneurship blends business principles with a social or environmental mission and is driven by a desire to create positive change in society by addressing issues such as poverty or environmental sustainability.

TOMS Shoes are a good example of social entrepreneurship as they donate a third of their profits to grassroots organisations which work to create an impact in mental health, access to opportunity, and ending gun violence in the US.

How do entrepreneurs make money?

One of the key motivators for becoming an entrepreneur is the potential for financial success, but the path to profitability can vary widely with the type of entrepreneurship you pursue and whether you need to seek external funding to get started.

Funding a startup

Starting a new business venture can have substantial upfront costs, particularly if it includes expenses like market research, product development, marketing strategies and office space.

To address these financial needs, entrepreneurs can explore the following:

  • Bootstrapping: This involves using personal savings and reinvesting revenue generated by the business to fund growth. This approach allows entrepreneurs to maintain full control, but can limit the speed of business expansion.
  • Angel investors: These are individuals who provide capital to startups in exchange for equity or ownership shares. They often bring valuable industry expertise and connections in addition to financial support.
  • Venture capital: Venture capitalist firms invest in early-stage startups with high growth potential and typically receive equity in exchange for funding.
  • Bank loans: Traditional business loans may be an option for entrepreneurs and are usually available as ‘secured’ (backed by collateral) or ‘unsecured’ (based on creditworthiness).
  • Crowdfunding: Entrepreneurs can raise capital by presenting their business ideas to a wide audience who will receive incentives if they financially contribute.

Maintaining a profitable business

Cash flow is key to success in entrepreneurship, so it’s important that once a business gets off the ground it continues to make money. 90% of startups fail because they run out of cash, with this in mind, it’s important for a new entrepreneur to consider how much it will cost to be able to generate the product or service being offered to ensure the end price is more than cash spent.

The ways a company can make money will depend on its business model, but can include:

  • Product sales: Businesses in retail and manufacturing will have revenue primarily coming from selling products. This method includes costs associated with product development, manufacturing, packaging and distribution, so entrepreneurs must have a competitive pricing strategy which will still generate a profit while taking these costs into account.
  • Service fees: Service-based businesses generate income by providing specialised skills or expertise. When determining pricing structure and profit margins, costs to consider will include acquiring necessary equipment, setting up a workspace, and investing in professional development or certifications.
  • Subscription models: Many modern startups, particularly in the tech sector, employ subscription-based models. This can require heavy investment in technology infrastructure, software development, and marketing to attract and retain potential customers.
  • Advertising and sponsorships: Entrepreneurs who create content, whether through blogs, podcasts, or social media, can monetise their audience through advertising partnerships or sponsored content. This model will have lower startup costs compared to others, but may require a larger time investment to promote your platform to attract advertisers.
  • Licensing and royalties: Some entrepreneurs generate income by licensing their intellectual property, such as patents, trademarks, or copyrighted content, to others in exchange for royalties. This won’t be applicable to all industries and can incur legal fees associated with securing and protecting intellectual property rights.

What are the characteristics of an entrepreneur?

To thrive in the world of entrepreneurship, it is vital to cultivate key traits that set successful entrepreneurs apart. 

Some of these characteristics include:

  • Visionary thinking: Entrepreneurs possess a clear vision of their goals and are forward-thinkers, always looking ahead.
  • Resilience and perseverance: Setbacks are inevitable, but successful entrepreneurs view them as learning opportunities and press forward.
  • Adaptability: The business landscape is ever-evolving. Being adaptable allows entrepreneurs to pivot when necessary and seize emerging opportunities. 
  • Effective communication: From in-person networking events to pitching to potential investors, communication skills are vital for building relationships and securing partnerships.
  • Hard work and dedication: Starting a business demands unwavering commitment and a willingness to put in the hours.
  • Customer-centric focus: Understanding and meeting the needs of your target audience is paramount. A successful business is one which provides value to its new and existing customers.

Learn how to thrive as an aspiring entrepreneur

Whether you dream of launching your own business and creating the next successful startup or you want to develop the intrapreneurial skills that business owners will see huge potential in, the University of York’s 100% online MSc in Finance, Leadership and Management will equip you for a successful career. 

The flexible design of the programme is intended to enable you to fit study around existing commitments – whether that’s family, full-time work, or writing the business plan for your new venture. You will learn how to apply theories of strategic management in practice, effective operations management, and business finance. Take the next step in your career and apply today.

What is continuing professional development?

Ever-evolving, competitive work environments mean professional development has become a necessity for professionals across all industries.

Advancing knowledge and learning new skills should be a priority for business leaders, managers and individuals. As the European Commission report, currently, more than 75% of EU companies say they have difficulties finding workers with the necessary skills – and only 37% of adults undertake training on a regular basis.

How do you stay ahead of the competition in your career? Is there more you could be doing in terms of addressing personal skills or knowledge gaps?

What is continuing professional development?

The Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development define continuing professional development (CPD) as ‘learning experiences which help you develop and improve your professional practice.’

As well as building on existing strengths, CPD focuses on identifying and addressing any gaps in your skills, knowledge and competencies. It may require upskilling – or reskilling – and is an ongoing process that should be factored into an individual’s professional career regardless of age, occupation oreducation level. CPD doesn’t follow a one-size-fits-all approach; rather, it varies depending on the person, their specific needs, and their career goals.

While the activities will differ from person to person, CPD often look like:

  • peer coaching, mentoring or shadowing
  • joining training programmes
  • studying for formal professional qualifications or accreditations
  • joining professional bodies
  • networking
  • volunteering
  • reflective practice
  • online learning and CPD courses
  • giving presentations or developing course material
  • attending relevant industry events, seminars and webinars
  • reading relevant articles, books or journals
  • participating in professional networks, forums and special interest groups.

CPD falls into three different categories:

  1. Structured CPD (also known as active CPD/active learning) is proactive and participation-based. An example of structured learning is a marketing professional studying over a period of time for a Chartered Institute of Marketing (CIM) qualification.
  2. Reflective CPD (also known as passive learning) is generally not participation-based. An example of passive learning is an entrepreneur listening to podcasts, reading case studies or watching e-learning material about securing start-up finance.
  3. Informal CPD (also known as unstructured learning/self-directed CPD) is unstructured and generally doesn’t adhere to a specific timeframe. An example of self-directed learning is a healthcare assistant reading the latest health sector-specific news or research.

Any learning activity which supports your professional development can be considered CPD. However, the best approach is to tailor the type of learning you are doing to enhance your current practice and add value to the service you provide..

Why is continuing professional development important?

Why should we all be harnessing the power of CPD?

While CPD is undoubtedly an investment in yourself, its benefits extend far beyond personal growth and carving out competitive advantage. It has the potential to help all of us to stay effective, relevant, and adaptable in our roles and careers.

Regardless of sector or job role, CPD is instrumental in terms of:

  • adapting to changing demands
  • career development and advancement
  • ensuring knowledge and skills are up-to-date and informed by the latest thinking
  • professional skills
  • increased confidence
  • effective decision-making
  • better job performance.

For business leaders, creating a culture and community of lifelong learning and lifelong learners among employees – that transcends roles, levels and departments – is hugely beneficial. As well as being important in terms of employee performance and motivation, it can support legal compliance, help your business increase its competitiveness, raise brand profile and, ultimately, boost profits and business sustainability.

What is the CPD cycle?

How can we ensure CPD remains regular and delivers measurable improvements?

While appraisals are a great time to benchmark and reflect on achievements, challenges and development objectives, CPD should not be limited to bi-annual or annual formalised check-ins.

The CPD Certification Service regard the CPD cycle as ‘a practical tool that helps structure your annual CPD plan, learning objectives and outcomes so that the training you undertake is suitable and worthwhile for your ongoing CPD requirements.’

The CPD cycle provides a framework of five logical and systematic steps:

  1. Identify needs. What knowledge or skill gaps need addressing? Conduct a straightforward needs analysis or assessment to highlight any learning needs. You’ll need to identify existing weaknesses, as well as any skills, topics or areas that will support your future professional expertise.
  2. Plan. What objectives need to be set to structure your learning? This includes looking at the specific development activities, skills and subject areas that align with overall development needs and goals, and designing a CPD plan to meet these goals.
  3. Act. Are you ready to engage with the development plan and CPD activities? The learning tasks – for example, completing online courses or attending educational workshops – will depend on your needs analysis and objectives.
  4. Reflect. How successful were the CPD learning activities? Examine what you learnt, how knowledge has increased, the skills you’ve acquired, and where the learning could be applied in your existing practice.
  5. Implement. Have you applied your new knowledge or skills in your role? Using your learning in practical ways completed the CPD cycle.

The CPD cycle can benefit all of us with its well-rounded approach. In addition to providing a structured learning path, it offers clearly defined goals and promotes the inclusion of relevant, diversified learning methods.

Gain the skills to develop effective solutions to complex financial challenges

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Develop the communication, problem-solving and strategic skills required to navigate fast-changing, competitive global business environments. With a keen interest in professional development and enhancing your practice, our flexible, 100%-online masters degree is designed to prepare you for the next step in your career and let you study in a way that suits you. As well as business fundamentals – spanning topics such as operations management, leadership, people management, strategy and marketing – you’ll gain specialist expertise in the core aspects of business finance. You’ll study asset pricing, investment management, corporate financial strategy, financial sustainability and more.

 

What is a local government officer?

Local governments exist to meet the complex, evolving and diverse needs of citizens.

Their broad remit – which includes education, environment, health and social care, town planning and urban design, transport, tourism, culture, housing, and human resources – requires skilled, committed individuals who operate at local government level and ensure that everything functions as it should.

What is the role of a local government officer?

Local government officers ensure that practical decisions and actions related to local government policies and procedures – made by local councillors – are enacted. Their other main role is to ensure that local public service provision and delivery is efficient and cost-effective. Local government officer roles can fall within corporate, front-line or support services.

According to the Local Government Association, local government officers are distinct from civil servants in that they ‘have a duty to support the whole council, not just the cabinet.’ As such, they must remain neutral in terms of political groups and affiliations.

The role often requires interaction with numerous stakeholders including the public, local councils, local authorities, administrators, councillors and specialists. While some roles are more committee-based and far-reaching, others are embedded within specific functions and departments.

What are the responsibilities of a local government officer?

Specific duties of local government officers working in the UK will vary depending on the department they work in, the nature of their position, and the needs of the local community they serve – as well as their level of responsibility and seniority.

In its broadest sense, a local government officer’s role and oversights may encompass:

  • Public engagement, including disseminating information, addressing concerns, and gathering data and information.
  • Service delivery, including ensuring that local services such as housing, social services, education and public transportation are operating efficiently.
  • Community development, including revitalisation and redevelopment projects, infrastructure improvements, and initiatives to boost economic development.
  • Policy development, including implementing strategies, policies and actions in line with community requirements and concerns, conducting research, analysing data, and making suggestions and recommendations.
  • Cross-agency collaboration, including non-profit organisations, local community groups, councils, and government agencies in order to join forces and tackle complex, multifaceted issues.
  • Regulation and compliance, including conducting inspections, enforcing rules, and organising permits to help businesses and citizens to comply with legal requirements, council policies and regulations.

The government’s National Careers website states that the day to day responsibilities of a local government officer often include:

  • managing and evaluating projects
  • writing reports and briefing papers
  • dealing with enquiries and giving advice
  • presenting information in meetings
  • supervising administrative work and managing clerical staff
  • keeping records
  • preparing and managing contracts
  • dealing with other agencies
  • managing budgets and funding.

For many local government officers, work is predominantly desk based. However, certain roles may require estate visits, site visits and inspections.

How can I become a local government officer?

If you’re committed to ensuring equal opportunity service delivery and enhancing the lives of others, you might be suited to a local government officer position.

Whichever route you opt for, to be successful in a local government officer role, you’ll need to demonstrate a range of skills:

  • interpersonal and communication skills
  • stakeholder management
  • an ability to use initiative
  • business administration, management and project management skills
  • collaboration and teamwork
  • negotiation
  • organisation, prioritisation and planning
  • adaptability and resilience
  • problem solving and analytical skills.

What are the career prospects of a local government officer?

By its nature, local government is a diverse profession – and so too are the future career prospects it offers. There is no ‘one’ set career path; rather, the breadth and scope of its remit enables employees to follow their developing interests and strengths.

After gaining greater understanding of the sector and building on existing skills and experience, those working in local government officer positions may wish to pursue senior management, administrative and leadership roles. You’re also not limited to one function or department; another advantage of local government’s wide reach is the option to transfer between different areas – for example, moving from social services to environmental policy to social work to town planning. Others also choose to transfer from local government to other areas of the public sector organisations such as voluntary organisations, government departments and agencies, and the National Health Service.

In terms of average salary, those starting out in the role can expect to earn around £17,500, and more experienced officers around £37,000.

If you’re interested and want to find out more, websites such as jobsgopublic and localgovjobs have more information about job vacancies.

Gain the skills to drive progress and impact within local government and county councils

Could a career in local government or public services be the right choice for you?

Prepare to meet the challenges facing the public and non-profit sectors – and improve the lives of local communities and members of the public – with the University of York’s online MBA Public Sector Management programme.

You’ll combine academic expertise with practical, real-world application, exploring themes central to public life, governance and management – from diversity and sustainability to global citizenship. Our highly flexible, 100% online course is designed to support public sector professionals to take the next step in their careers and land senior leadership positions.

Study topics central to effective public sector management including policy analysis, public-private partnerships, operations management, ethical social leadership, delivering public value, strategy, marketing, leadership and more.

 

Understanding taxation systems and how they support public sector budgets

Public services and social welfare are among the most essential components of any modern society. But these services require funding, and this funding typically comes from taxation – the lifeblood of a nation’s public sector budgets.

Understanding the intricacies of taxation systems and public sector spending is important for anyone working in – or with – the public sector because of their far-reaching implications. For example, they influence:

  • policy-making
  • economic stability
  • citizen well-being

In the United Kingdom – along with the majority of other nations – they support a comprehensive range of services, from healthcare and education to infrastructure and defence. 

Taxation in the United Kingdom

The UK government relies on a variety of taxation sources to generate revenue for funding public services and other government activities.

These sources can be broadly categorised into direct and indirect taxes:

  • Direct taxes are the taxes on people’s income or wealth.  
  • Indirect taxes are the taxes people pay when purchasing certain goods and services.

What are the main sources of tax revenue for the government?

For the UK government, the main sources of government tax revenue include:

  • Income Tax. Income Tax in the UK is a progressive tax system, which means that higher earners pay a larger portion of their income through a higher rate of tax. Income taxpayers typically have their taxes deducted directly from their earnings – known as Pay As You Earn, or PAYE. Some people, such as those who are self-employed, can pay their taxes through a self-assessment process at the end of each tax year.
  • Value Added Tax (VAT). VAT, an indirect tax, is added to most goods and services at the point of purchase and is paid by both individuals and businesses.
  • Corporation Tax. Private sector businesses in the UK – including foreign companies with offices or branches in the UK – are required to pay Corporation Tax on their profits.
  • National Insurance. National Insurance contributions help fund the National Health Service (NHS) and other social security programmes, such as state pensions and statutory maternity pay.

Other examples of tax liabilities and accruals in the UK include:

  • The Stamp Duty Land Tax, which is paid by people purchasing homes or land in England and Northern Ireland. There is also the Land and Buildings Transaction Tax in Scotland, and the Land Transaction Tax in Wales.
  • The Aggregate Levy, a tax that applies to any commercial extraction of rock, sand and gravel.
  • The Capital Gains Tax, which applies to money made from sources such as selling personal possessions worth more than £6,000 (excluding cars), property and shares.
  • Excise Duty, which is a tariff paid on items such as alcohol and tobacco products.

It’s also worth noting that taxation systems can change over time. For example, a new tax proposed in 2021 – the Health and Social Care Levy – was later reversed by a new chancellor of the exchequer in 2022.

What are the reasons for taxation and government spending?

Taxation and government expenditure are what ensure that the public services people rely on – healthcare, education, transportation, and so on – are available, well-maintained and expanded as needed.

“Without them [taxes] it would be impossible to pay for the country’s defence services, its health, welfare and social services, its schools and universities, and its transport systems,” explains the UK Parliament website. “In addition to these huge areas of expenditure, financial support is given to other vital areas such as industry, sport, heritage and culture.”

Tax systems also enable governments to influence economic activity and initiatives. For example, the UK government offers a Research and Development Tax Relief scheme of subsidies for businesses that “work on innovative projects in science and technology.” By offering incentives and exemptions like these, governments encourage businesses to develop new technologies, advance scientific discovery, create new jobs, and drive wider economic growth.

What is the difference between a progressive and a regressive tax system?

A progressive tax system such as the UK’s income tax places a higher tax burden on higher earners. For example, in the 2023/24 financial year, there is a 20% tax threshold on UK earners’ income between £12,571 and £50,270, and a 40% tax on income between £50,271 and £125,140. 

A regressive tax, on the other hand, is a tax rate that doesn’t change regardless of where – or to whom – it’s applied. These taxes tend to disproportionately affect lower-income people because a larger percentage of their income is taxed. 

What is the difference between hypothecated and non-hypothecated taxes?

Taxation can also be categorised as hypothecated or non-hypothecated.

Hypothecated taxes, such as National Insurance contributions, are earmarked for specific purposes, while non-hypothecated taxes like income tax and corporation tax contribute to a wider revenue pool and offer the government more flexibility in allocation.

The public sector in the United Kingdom

The UK’s public sector is a collection of government services that require substantial funding – much of which comes from taxation.

Recent figures show that total public sector spending, when viewed as a percentage of the UK’s gross domestic product (GDP), is around 45%.

What are the key areas of public spending?

According to the government’s public spending statistics published in May 2023, the biggest areas of public expenditure in the UK include:

  • Social protection. Social protection is a category covering everything from housing benefit to pensions.
  • Health. Healthcare costs are always a significant area of public spending, and increased in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. The majority of health spending in the UK is overseen by the Department of Health and Social Care and helps fund the NHS.
  • General public services. This area has increased in recent years due to a significant increase in interest on public sector debt repayments.
  • Economic affairs. Recent examples of economic affairs spending include subsidising fuel and energy costs.
  • Education. Education spending primarily funds UK primary and secondary schools.

How are public sector budgets managed?

Public finances and decision-making in the UK must be managed prudently and transparently. Whether raising revenue through taxes or spending public funds, governments are required to outline new or amended financial plans while also seeking approval from Parliament before taking any action.

The central government is responsible for setting fiscal policy, tax policy, and allocating resources to government departments through its tax administration systems. Local authorities, meanwhile, also have budgets, and local governments manage services at the community level. 

Public finance oversight in the United Kingdom

The Office for Budget Responsibility (OBR) was created to oversee and scrutinise government finance in the UK. It is responsible for:

  • Providing independent economic and fiscal forecasts.
  • Assessing the sustainability of public finances.
  • Evaluating the government’s performance against its fiscal targets.

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Taxation forms the lifeblood of a nation’s public sector budgets. Learn about the intricacies of taxation systems and public sector spending in this article.

 

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Taxation forms the lifeblood of a nation’s public sector budgets. Learn about the intricacies of taxation systems and public sector spending in this article.

 

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The fundamental role of government

Throughout the twentieth century, many countries witnessed significant changes as the importance of the state grew and the role of the government evolved. In the wake of World War Two, nations the world over – Great Britain included – sought to rebuild in the aftermath of destruction, tackling the immense challenges facing industry, economy, infrastructure and society.

Now, in the 21st century, they continue to grow and evolve in both new and familiar ways. The pandemic saw national and federal governments enact stringent policies to contain the spread of COVID-19, the effects of which are still being felt by economies and communities.

What is the role of government?

The specific roles and functions of national governments vary depending on the political ideologies and societal characteristics of a given country. For starters, different governments will have various  approaches, priorities and orientations to the rule of law, including:

  • democracies
  • dictatorships
  • autocracies
  • oligarchies
  • constitutional governments.

Generally speaking, national and state governments are responsible for:

  • provision of public services and public goods – managing key expenditures to deliver healthcare, transportation, sanitation, education, development of infrastructure and much more.
  • economic regulation – ensuring economic stability, protecting consumers, upholding fair competition in the private sector, encouraging entrepreneurship and addressing deficits.
  • national defence – safeguarding the security and sovereignty of the country via national defence forces such as the UK Armed Forces.
  • law and order – keeping citizens safe by implementing and enforcing laws and security systems and establishing law enforcement bodies such as police forces.
  • protecting human rights – including individual rights and fundamental liberties such as freedom of religion or belief and freedom of speech.
  • international relations and diplomacy – upholding relations, partnerships, agreements and negotiations with other countries and nations.
  • protecting the environment – via policies which aim to tackle issues such as the climate crisis and environmental sustainability.
  • resource distribution – address economic disparities using wealth redistribution methods such as social welfare initiatives and tax revenues.

In the UK, there are various central government bodies and organisations, which have wide-ranging goals and remits. The range of their responsibilities and interests are broad, offering an insight into some of the critical aspects of society the government oversees.

In the UK, these include the:

  • Department for Business and Trade
  • Department for Culture, Media and Sport
  • Department for Education
  • Department for Energy and Net Zero
  • Department for Food, Environment and Rural Affairs
  • Department for Science, Innovation and Technology
  • Department for Work and Pensions
  • Department of Health and Social Care.

There is also local government, tasked with providing and managing vital services for populations and businesses in specific areas. Local government systems include schools, social and community care, housing, waste collection, business support and planning and licensing.

What is the difference between government and parliament?

According to the UK parliament website, ‘the government is responsible for deciding how the country is run and for managing things, day to day’ whereas ‘parliament is there to represent public interests and make sure they are taken into account by the government.’

The government is made up of the political party that wins the most seats at a general election, and consists of the prime minister, their cabinet, junior ministers, and non-political civil servants based in various government departments.

Parliament is formed of two Houses: the House of Commons and the House of Lords. Members of the Houses are eligible to speak on behalf of the public interest if they believe unfair treatment  has occurred or will occur at the hands of governmental agencies or departments. It is a requirement that government ministers attend parliament on a regular basis to engage in debates with other political parties, respond to issues, answer questions, and inform the Houses of important decisions.

What factors affect government?

A number of factors spanning political, economic and cultural contexts can all affect  government decisions at international, national and local levels.

Examples of factors that can influence and impact government include:

  • Political beliefs and ideologies, such as liberalism, conservatism, socialism and environmentalism, will influence how a government operates, the policies it develops and the areas it focuses on.
  • Economic climate, for example whether there’s high unemployment, a recession, inflation or slow economic growth, can significantly influence national budget expenditure and fiscal policies.
  • Public opinion, often expressed via polls, elections, protests and rallies, can impact governmental responses and actions.
  • Globalisation, which can impact international relations between governments, as well as issues such as trade, business and immigration.
  • Technology, in particular advancements, mean governments must take into account factors such as cybersecurity, data privacy and protection, and surveillance.
  • National demographics, from age to size to composition of a population, impact decisions made around aspects such as health provision, social services offerings, jobs and pensions.
  • Interest groups, who advocate on behalf of specific issues – such as the British Medical Association (BMA) lobbying the government to introduce the smoking ban in the interests of public health – can put pressure on policymakers and influence decisions and outcomes.
  • Legal frameworks, as well as constitutions, often dictate what governments can and can’t do in relation to the extent of rights and powers.

There are numerous other factors, including the country or nation’s historical context, the media, and world events – such as trade agreements, health crises and conflicts.

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Understanding the main components of government spending in the UK

In the United Kingdom, government spending finances a wide range of public services, but it also plays an important role in the national economy, influencing its growth as well as its stability.

This is commonly known as Keynesian economics, a macroeconomic theory that was widely adopted after World War II, and advocates for government intervention in the economy – particularly during economic downturns. During the past century, Keynesian theory has helped shape UK fiscal policy, and today government spending includes several components including current and capital expenditure.

Areas of government spending

General government expenditure will typically fall into one of two broad categories:

  • Current expenditure, which covers day-to-day operational and administrative expenses. This spending is necessary to ensure the smooth functioning of public services and institutions.
  • Capital expenditure, which covers investments in assets, facilities, and infrastructure projects. This spending typically yields benefits over a longer period of time, and contributes to the improvement or expansion of public services.

Current expenditure examples

Essential public services

Public services are at the heart of UK society. These services range from healthcare and education, to law enforcement and defense. Some may be run by the central government, while others are organised through local governments and authorities. But all of them are made possible through government spending.

Social welfare programmes

Social security and welfare programmes are a significant area of current expenditure. These programmes provide vital support and social protection to people at different stages of their lives. For example, they fund statutory maternity benefits and state pensions, as well as unemployment benefits and housing assistance. 

These programmes can take many forms. For example, they may include in-person support, or they may be offered through financial support, such as subsidies, grants, or transfer payments that pay money directly to people, such as those who receive child benefits or a disability allowance.

Interest payments

Interest payments on government debt is another area of current expenditure. When the UK government borrows money to fund various projects and initiatives, it incurs interest obligations on this government deficit. 

Capital expenditure examples

Public investment in infrastructure

Government investment in infrastructure initiatives such as road construction, public transportation projects, and energy facilities, is crucial for stimulating economic growth. These projects create jobs, enhance productivity more widely, and improve the quality of life for the people of the UK.

Healthcare

Capital spending on healthcare is also significant, including investments in new hospitals, medical equipment and technology. These investments are essential for ensuring the long-term sustainability and efficiency of the healthcare system, as well as better health outcomes for UK residents.

Education

Capital expenditure in education includes building and renovating schools as well as providing educational resources and technology. 

How government funds are collected and allocated

When looking at public finances – both coming in and going out – governments have to balance public service requirements and allocations with responsible fiscal policy.

  • Taxation. The majority of government revenue is raised through taxation. For example, tax revenue sources can include a national income tax or corporation tax.
  • Inflation control. The government-owned Bank of England sets interest rates with the aim of managing inflation and keeping the cost of living stable. 
  • Forecasting. Accurate forecasting of government revenue and total expenditure is essential for prudent financial management. Economists and analysts use data and models to predict future economic activity, trends, and government finances, helping policymakers to make informed decisions. 
  • Prioritisation. The government works to prioritise its spending to address the most pressing needs first, and to achieve its policy objectives.

Looking at the bigger picture

When examining public expenditure, it can be helpful to consider public finances within a broader scope. For example, discussions about the UK’s public services are often mentioned alongside the UK’s gross domestic product (GDP), which represents the total economic output of the country.

Viewing government spending as a share of GDP – or specifically, a percentage of total GDP – provides insight into the scale and importance of the public sector within the economy. In the UK, this figure fluctuates each year – particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic – but has been recently hovering around 45%, highlighting the substantial role that the government plays in the country’s economy.

The UK government will also consider its place internationally and compare its public spending to other countries. 

“In per-person terms, the UK’s public spending is similar to that of Australia,” the UK Parliament explains in its August 2023 publication, Public spending: a brief introduction. “The UK is far from unusual in its spending among developed economies, either in the amount that it spends per person or relative to the size of its economy – its spending as a percentage of GDP is fairly typical amongst OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) members.”

However, it’s also important to look at the economy more generally and consider public finances within that context. For example, the UK is currently facing a number of financial challenges that could impact public finances:

“Post-Brexit uncertainty has declined somewhat due to the Windsor Framework agreement to resolve disputes around the Northern Ireland Protocol,” explains the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in a 2023 report. “Still, the economy faces several challenges. The post-pandemic recovery was disrupted by the sharp energy price shock due to Russia’s war in Ukraine; labour force participation has declined, mainly on account of rising long-term illness; and large policy rate increases – needed to arrest high and sticky inflation – have tightened financial conditions.”

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Why is cybersecurity important?

Our modern, interconnected lives rely on technological advances and capabilities – from the way we bank and communicate with friends, to how we buy groceries and manage our homes.

The Internet of Things (IoT) has made this revolution of convenience, speed, access and application possible. With approximately 15.14 billion IoT-connected devices as of 2023, these technologies –such as our smartphones, tablets and laptops – are present in just about every aspect of our lives.

While this brings with it great benefits, such proliferation of tech – and our increasing reliance on it – also creates irresistible attack surfaces for hackers, threat actors and cybercriminals. Between 2022 and 2023, 32% of small businesses, 59% of medium businesses, and 69% of large businesses in the UK reported an attack or breach. With cybercrime on the rise, cybersecurity – and its role in preserving our data, infrastructure and privacy – is critical.

Why is cybersecurity important?

Cyberattacks and cyberthreats can have devastating, far-reaching consequences for businesses, individuals and wider society. Not only can attacks prove expensive, they also threaten information security, destabilise livelihoods and cause widespread disruption.

The importance of cybersecurity lies in its ability to protect against theft, loss and damage. Where it fails, cybercrime can have a number of outcomes:

  • Economic implications – As well as the theft of corporate information and intellectual property, cyberthreats can disrupt trading and damage systems. There can also be national security threats, where criminals target critical infrastructure such as payment systems, power grids and water supply systems in an attempt to sow chaos, or cause disruption by acts such as vandalising government websites.
  • Regulatory issues – Cybercrime targets all types of sensitive and private data, including personally identifiable information (PII), intellectual property, financial details and protected health information (PHI). This is not only risky from an identity theft and data theft perspective, but also breaches general data protection regulations (GDPR).
  • Reputational damage – Customers want to know their personal customer data is in safe hands. Breaches can lead to loss of current and future business, reduced competitive advantage, unfavourable media coverage and loss of trust in a brand.

Without a robust, considered cybersecurity programme, businesses of all sizes – and across all industries – are less able to defend themselves against data breaches.

What are the main threats to cybersecurity?

Hackers continually develop the methods used to breach network security and gain access our systems, devices and sensitive data – meaning cybersecurity professionals have the ongoing task of remaining one step ahead of them.

There are numerous common cybersecurity threats:

  • Malware. Malicious software – including spyware, ransomware, Trojans, viruses and worms – is used to infect computer systems, steal personal data or disrupt operations.
  • Phishing. In phishing attacks, individuals are tricked into revealing or sharing sensitive information. The attacks mimic legitimate entities – such as an email from a bank, an ad on social media or a text message from a relative – but are, in fact, social engineering scams designed to expose details such as login credentials or financial information.
  • Zero-day exploits. Vulnerabilities in software or hardware not known to the manufacturer or developer are targeted, leaving ‘zero days’ of defence until a solution or patch is developed.
  • Distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks. During a DDoS attack, a provider’s website or network is flooded with traffic in a bid to render it slow or unavailable.
  • Man-in-the-middle (MitM) attacks. Also known as an ‘eavesdropping’ attack, criminals interrupt communications or data transfers and pretend to be the participants. From here, they can intercept data and information and also infect systems with malware.
  • Insider threats. Insider threats are not always malicious; often, issues of data security result from accidental employee actions. This can include data leaks, allowing unauthorised access or password sharing.

Other common threats include supply chain attacks, cryptojacking, misconfigured cloud services and cloud security settings and advanced persistent threats (APTs).

Identifying and understanding the type and nature of these threats is the key to mitigating them, which isexactly why talented cybersecurity experts are in such high demand across all global industries.

What can be done to protect against security breaches and attacks?

Effective cybersecurity measures help to defend our data, infrastructure, assets and livelihoods against a host of threats. Fortunately, there are plenty of ways in which organisations can minimise system breaches and protect against future attacks.

Safeguard against unauthorised access and other security risks by:

  • enabling multi-factor authentication
  • performing penetration testing to assess and identify vulnerabilities
  • developing regular updates and patches
  • using strong passwords
  • limiting and monitoring access
  • monitoring all devices connected to networks
  • installing firewalls and anti-virus software
  • using a virtual private network (VPN) and never connecting to unsecured or unknown Wi-Fi networks
  • encrypting data
  • configuring cloud systems and other key infrastructure correctly
  • training employees and other users on security practices such as avoiding phishing scams
  • making regular back-ups of data and ensuring its secure storage
  • establishing a disaster recovery/incident response plan
  • conducting employee screening
  • utilising automation tools for threat detection and monitoring.

As threats evolve, so too should cybersecurity practices, defenses and expertise. Security controls must be in place across every aspect of an organisation’s network and monitored proactively to stay ahead of malicious threats.

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Protecting against cybersecurity threats

Within today’s hyperconnected digital landscape, cybersecurity threats have evolved to become a complex and ever-present challenge for individuals, businesses and governments. While the rapid advancement of technology has opened up unprecedented opportunities, it has also created a playground for malicious actors and cyber criminals who aim to exploit security vulnerabilities for financial gain, ill-gotten confidential information, or simply to inflict damage.

These cybercrime threats can compromise sensitive information – such as credit card details or passwords for email or social media accounts – cripple computer systems, and even jeopardise national security, so it’s essential to have robust security solutions in place and to stay vigilant against emerging threats.

Common cybersecurity threats

To proactively protect against cyberattacks , it’s helpful to understand the different types of cybersecurity threats – particularly the ones most likely to strike.

Malware

Malware is a blanket term for various types of malicious software, including computer viruses and worms, that infiltrate systems with the intent of causing harm. This may be done via malicious links in emails, hacked websites, infected files or programmes, and so on.

Phishing

Phishing attacks involve cybercriminals masquerading as legitimate entities to trick users into revealing sensitive data. While phishing scams will target a huge number of people, there are also attacks known as spear phishing, which target a specific individual. Phishing is a threat to organisational information security, but it can also lead to more personal consequences such as identity theft.

Ransomware

Ransomware attacks involve accessing, extracting, and encrypting a victim’s data in order to demand a ransom for its release. These attacks can target both individuals and high-profile organisations.

Spyware

As its name suggests, spyware infiltrates systems to gather information without the user’s consent. A type of malware, spyware can record keystrokes, capture screenshots and even access webcams.

Trojans

Trojan horse attacks disguise malicious code as legitimate software. Once installed, Trojans provide unauthorised access to the attacker through a system’s backdoor, and can lead to large-scale data breaches.

Denial of Service (DoS) and Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks

Denial of service attacks work to overload a target system or network with a flood of traffic, rendering it unavailable to legitimate users. DDoS attacks amplify this effect by using multiple sources, often malware-compromised machines known as bots or a botnet.

Man-in-the-middle attack (MitM attack)

During a MitM attack, an attacker aims to intercept communications between two other parties without their knowledge. This allows the attacker to eavesdrop within the conversation, alter messages or even inject malicious code into the communications.

Structured query language (SQL) injections

SQL injection attacks manipulate a database query through malicious code. If successful, attackers can gain unauthorised access to a target system’s database and critical infrastructure and potentially even destroy it.

Understanding the difference between a cyber attack and a cyber threat

A cyber threat is a potential danger. It’s a threat that could exploit a vulnerability in a system or network, but may not come to pass.

A cyberattack , meanwhile, is a threat brought to life – a vulnerability exploited in order to compromise a system, steal data, disrupt services or carry out other malicious activities.

The best protections against cyber threats

There are a number of safeguards available to both individuals and organisations that want to bolster their digital defences against cybersecurity risks. Many of these have become increasingly important in the era of remote working, where people are working away from the office and therefore away from their employer-protected IP address and internet or Wi-Fi services.

  • Patch and update regularly. Keeping hardware – including laptops and mobile devices – as well as operating systems, software apps, and Internet of Things devices (IoT devices) up to date is essential. Software updates in particular often include patches that address known vulnerabilities – known as attack vectors – and prevent attackers from exploiting them.
  • Require additional user authentication. Implementing stronger-than-average authentication measures adds extra layers of digital security and makes it more difficult for unauthorised parties to gain access to data and wider systems. Examples of additional user authentication include two-factor authentication, multi-factor authentication and biometric verification. 
  • Invest in endpoint security. Endpoint security solutions protect individual devices from a wide array of threats, such as malware. They provide real-time monitoring, threat detection and immediate response capabilities.
  • Bolster network security. Using security measures such as firewalls plays an important role in safeguarding computer networks. Firewalls act as a barrier between a trusted internal network and untrusted external networks, scrutinising incoming and outgoing traffic while filtering out malicious content and potential threats as needed.
  • Apply encryption measures. Encrypting sensitive data for transmission and storage ensures that even if data falls into the wrong hands, it remains unreadable.
  • Complete regular backups. Regularly backing up data and other critical information to secure locations, such as in the cloud, ensures that it is always accessible and can help mitigate the impact of ransomware attacks and data breaches. Regular backups also protect against events such as system crashes or human error. 

According to Microsoft, an effective cybersecurity programme “includes people, processes, and technology solutions that together reduce the risk of business disruption, financial loss, and reputational damage from an attack.”

So in addition to technical safeguards, it’s also important that individual people have a firm understanding of cyber threats and cybersecurity education more generally. Within organisations, this includes:

  • Comprehensive cybersecurity training for employees to ensure they can recognise phishing attempts, social engineering tactics and other deceptive methods used by cybercriminals and hackers.
  • Staying informed about the latest threats and safety measures.
  • Having a well-defined incident response plan in place to ensure that the business can respond swiftly and effectively to cyber threats, and minimise potential damage.

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What does a cybersecurity analyst do?

Last year, 39% of UK businesses identified a cyberattack on their networks, operating systems and infrastructure, with the most common threats including phishing, denial of service (DoS), malware and ransomware attacks. Of this group, 31% estimated they were targeted at least once a week.

With cybercrime rates on the rise – and methods of attack growing in sophistication – businesses must take their data security more seriously than ever. As a direct result, the job outlook for cybersecurity professionals with the skills to guard against security risks and threat actors is positive. In fact, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) it’s estimated that job growth for cyber and information security analysts is projected to increase 35% from 2021 to 2031 – much faster than the average for all occupations.

What is a cybersecurity analyst?

A cybersecurity analyst is a computer science professional who helps design and implement security systems and solutions to protect a company’s computer networks from cyberattacks. These specialists act as a ‘first line of defence’ against hackers and cybercriminals who try to exploit system vulnerabilities, defending hardware, software and networks from malicious activity and closely monitoring IT infrastructure and assets.

What does the role of a cybersecurity analyst involve?

The process and specifics of preparing for, and responding to, cybersecurity breaches may differ depending on the workplace, organisation and sector – however, the general outline of an analyst’s role remains the same.

Security analysts spend their time managing software, monitoring network security, developing security plans, reporting on security, and researching trends and developments in order to keep themselves – and the companies they protect – up to date and ahead of any potential issues.

Further day-to-day tasks and responsibilities often include:

  •   identifying and resolving threats in order to protect information systems
  •   defining access privileges
  •   implementing, maintaining and upgrading security measures, such as firewalls and antivirus security software
  •   performing penetration tests
  •   monitoring security breaches and following incident response procedures
  •   assessing risks and suggesting/developing improvements
  •   conducting ongoing audits and assessments to detect inefficiencies and violations
  •   compiling security performance reports and sharing results with stakeholders.

Are there different types of cybersecurity analysts?

While all cybersecurity professionals aim to protect systems, networks and software from cyberthreats and data breaches – ensuring the private information of businesses and individuals is secure – there is variety within the field. As such, there’s plenty of scope to narrow your cybersecurity focus and role to an area that most interests you or suits your skill set.

Indeed list a number of positions that are similar to cybersecurity analyst roles:

  •   Computer forensic analyst
  •   IT security specialist
  •   Security manager
  •   Security engineer
  •   Security consultant
  •   Director of security
  •   Security administrator
  •   Information security analyst
  •   Security specialist
  •   Chief information officer
  •   Network security engineer
  •   Machine learning engineer.

How can I get a job as a cybersecurity analyst?

While undergraduate and Masters degrees are a common – and quicker – route into the profession, you don’t necessarily need to work in cybersecurity. Securing an entry-level IT role, and then working your way up and into cybersecurity – by way of experience and gaining industry certifications – presents a good alternative. Apprenticeships in cybersecurity are also an option. However, if you do have a degree in an unrelated subject and wish to secure a graduate-level role in the cyber field, a computer science Master programme that covers cybersecurity is ideal.

There are a number of specific technical skills you’ll need to work as a cybersecurity analyst or in cyber-related fields. These include:

  •   application security development
  •   network security
  •   cloud security
  •   risk and compliance auditing
  •   penetration testing
  •   threat intelligence analysis
  •   identity and access management
  •   mobile and remote computing
  •   communication
  •   problem-solving 
  •   leadership
  •   creativity.

Over time, your degree subject will be less important to potential employers as you gain relevant skills and experience that demonstrate your cybersecurity capabilities.Other ways of developing the skills and competencies required is to participate in a cybersecurity bootcamp, or undertake an internship to gain practical work experience.

Do I need cybersecurity certifications?

Whether you’re an entry-level analyst, want to upskill in a specific area to enhance your existing practice or land a certain specialised role, a cybersecurity qualification could be the answer.

Whatever aspect of the cybersecurity field you’re interested in, the following cybersecurity certifications could help:

  • Certified Ethical Hacker Certification, where ethical hacking skills and expertise are used lawfully and legitimately to enhance and assess company cybersecurity
  • CISSP Certification (Certified Information Systems Security Professional), which validates skills related to the design, building and maintenance of secure business environments using globally approved information security standards
  • CISA Certification (Certified Information Systems Auditor), is a globally recognised certification validating skills in the audit, control and security of information systems.

CompTIA Security have compiled a detailed list of other highly regarded, widely accepted cybersecurity certifications. There are online options, full-time and part-time learning models, practitioner-led and self-guided options available, depending on your needs and current commitments.

What is the average salary of a cybersecurity analyst?

With demand for specialists soaring in recent years, cybersecurity can be a lucrative career path with great job security.

The cybersecurity analyst salary varies depending on type of industry, specific job requirements, job location, and individual skills and experience. According to Prospects, starting salaries average between £25,000-£35,000, experienced and senior analysts earn upwards of £35,000 and in excess of £60,000, and managerial and leadership roles can command upwards of £70,000 on average.

Gain the specialist skills to design, implement and monitor IT security measures

If you’re thinking about a fast-paced and rewarding cybersecurity career, develop the expertise and skills to succeed with the University of York’s online MSc Computer Science with Cybersecurity programme.

Our flexible, 100%-online course has been designed for individuals without computer science or information technology backgrounds. You’ll gain an in-depth and solid understanding of computing fundamentals, including computer systems and network infrastructure, protocols, programming techniques and languages – including Python – and data analytics. Alongside this, specialist modules in security engineering will cover cryptography, access management, password protection, safeguarding against cyber threats, memory and resource management, incident response planning, and more.

What is cryptography?

Modern cryptography is a process used to keep digital communications secure, ensuring that only the intended senders and receivers of data can view the information.

This is achieved by using cryptographic algorithms and keys, and includes a few key steps:

  1. The user’s original information – known as plaintext – is encrypted into something called ciphertext, which will be indecipherable to anyone except the message’s intended recipients. 
  2. The encrypted message is then sent to the receiver. Even in the event of interception by an unintended recipient, the cryptographic algorithms will safeguard and protect data. 
  3. Once received, a key is used for decryption, enabling  the receiver to access the original message.

Why cryptography is important

It’s clear that cryptography provides vital data security, and this has become increasingly important in today’s interconnected world where data flows non-stop across devices and networks, and the confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity of information has become paramount.

“Cryptography is one of the most important tools businesses use to secure the systems that hold their most important data assets,” writes Forbes in a 2021 article about cryptography. “Vulnerabilities resulting from an absence of cryptography or having noncompliant crypto and unmanaged public key infrastructure (PKI) lead to business disruptions, data breaches and brand erosion. The average cost of a breach in the U.S. is $8.6 million, according to IBM and the Ponemon Institute, and mega-breaches can surpass a whopping $1 billion.”

Understanding the difference between cryptography and encryption

Cryptography and encryption are closely related terms, but they refer to distinct concepts. Cryptography has a broader scope, including the entire field of techniques and methods for securing information. Encryption, on the other hand, is a specific method  used within cryptography to transform data into an unreadable format for unauthorised users. 

Types of cryptography

  • Symmetric cryptography. In symmetric cryptography, the same secret key – shared by the sender and the recipient – is used to encrypt and decrypt. The single key method is efficient for securing data, but securely exchanging the secret key between parties can present a security challenge.
  • Asymmetric cryptography. Asymmetric cryptography, or public key cryptography, uses two different keys. The first is a public key, which is accessible to anyone, and the second is a private key, which is kept secret by its owner. Asymmetric cryptography and public key encryption eliminate the need to exchange secret keys, but are more computationally intensive than symmetric cryptography.
  • Hash functions. Hashing algorithms that don’t require a key. For example, they’re used for verifying passwords.

How is cryptography used in digital security?

Cryptosystems have several key applications, including:

  • Safeguarding sensitive information. Cryptography is used to encrypt sensitive data, such as credit card details and digital currencies and cryptocurrency, during transmission and storage. 
  • Enabling authentication systems. Cryptographic techniques ensure the authenticity of messages and the identity of the sender. This helps in verifying the legitimacy of the sender and detecting any tampering with the message. Cryptography also prevents non-repudiation, ensuring that the sender of a message cannot deny their involvement in sending it, because digital signatures provide evidence that the message was indeed sent by the claimed sender.
  • Protecting data integrity. Cryptography ensures that data remains unchanged during transit by generating what’s known as a hash value, which is a fixed-size string derived from the original data. Any alteration to the data will result in a different hash value, alerting the recipient to potential tampering.
  • Securing communications. Cryptography provides secure communications, particularly on websites. For example, SSL (secure sockets layer) and TLS (transport layer security) ensure that data exchanged between a user and a server remains confidential.

Cryptography: examples

Common examples of cryptography algorithms and systems include:

  • Advanced Encryption Standard (AES). AES, a symmetric encryption algorithm, is widely used to secure sensitive information. It’s employed in various ways, from securing banking transactions to protecting classified government documents.
  • RSA (Rivest-Shamir-Adleman). A prominent asymmetric encryption algorithm, RSA is often used for secure key exchanges and digital signatures on the internet.
  • Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange. The Diffie-Hellman method enables the secure exchange of cryptographic keys over an insecure channel.
  • Data Encryption Standard (DES). DES is a symmetric key cryptography algorithm that encrypts chunks of data in what’s known as a block cipher.
  • Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA). DSA algorithms are used to generate and authenticate digital signatures. 
  • Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC). ECC can create asymmetric keys more efficiently than RSA algorithms.

The future of cryptography

The future of cryptography is in quantum cryptography, with the hope it provides unhackable data encryption. But while quantum computing can be used in aid of cryptography, it’s can also be used against it:

“Quantum computers use a different computing architecture that can solve certain types of problems much faster than classical computers, including the mathematical problems used in some encryption methods,” explains Forbes. “As such, quantum computers have the potential to render current encryption methods vulnerable to attack, compromising the security of sensitive data. Thus, the threat becomes real when more powerful quantum computers are developed in the future, which could defeat commonly used encryption systems.”

Experts believe that some cyber criminals are already storing encrypted data now in the hopes of decrypting it once they have access to more powerful quantum computers in the years to come:

“It’s becoming increasingly common for data thieves to steal and store data until more powerful computers can decrypt it and present opportunities for espionage, blackmail or sale in the future.”

Build secure cryptosystems with a career in cybersecurity

Develop your expertise in cryptography with the 100% online MSc Computer Science with Cyber Security from the University of York. This flexible Masters degree is aimed at working professionals and graduates from other disciplines who want to build a career in computer science and cyber security.

In addition to cryptography, you will explore a range of other cyber concepts and solutions such as memory and resource management, password protection, and denial of service attacks (DoS). You’ll also learn about programming techniques, computer and network security infrastructure and protocols, security risks and security engineering.