The UK Civil Service: an explainer

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The United Kingdom’s Home Civil Service is the politically impartial collection of government departments, agencies, and non-departmental government bodies – also known as NDPBs – that advise governments, support the development and implementation of government policy, and provide public services.

Employed by the Crown, the Civil Service has an impact on the lives of everyone within the United Kingdom. For example, the gov.uk website lists a diverse range of public services that are managed by the Civil Service, including:

  • Benefits and pensions.
  • Employment services.
  • Issuing driving licences.

The Civil Service includes the majority of England’s governmental organisations, as well as the Welsh Assembly Government and the Scottish Government.

Structure of the Civil Service

The Civil Service operates under a clear governance model.

At the top of the hierarchy is the Crown and the Prime Minister, who oversees the government. 

Beneath the Crown is the Cabinet Secretary and Head of the Civil Service. This individual is the Prime Minister’s senior policy advisor and supports all ministers in the running of government while providing professional leadership within the Civil Service.

Next in the hierarchy is the Chief Operating Officer for the Civil Service. This individual is the Permanent Secretary for the Cabinet Office, chairs the Civil Service Board, and supports the Cabinet Secretary and Head of the Civil Service.

There are other permanent secretaries, as well. These are the most senior civil servants within each department of the Civil Service, responsible for the day-to-day running of their departments as well as supporting the government minister who officially heads those departments. The government ministers, meanwhile, are accountable to Parliament for the department’s performance. 

It’s also worth noting that there are Scottish and Welsh Permanent Secretaries, too. According to the UK Government website: “The Permanent Secretary of the Scottish Government is accountable to Scottish Ministers and is the Principal Accountable Officer for the Scottish Government. The Permanent Secretary of the Welsh Government is accountable to the First Minister of Wales and is the Principal Accounting Officer for the Welsh Government.”

Finally, there are three boards within the Civil Service:

  1. Civil Service Board (CSB), which is responsible for the strategic leadership of the Civil Service. The CSB is chaired by the Chief Operating Officer for the Civil Service, and includes a cross-section of permanent secretaries from Civil Service departments.
  2. People Board, which is a formal sub-board of the CSB, and considers people-related issues within the Civil Service. For example, it oversees the development of policies around pay and pensions for civil servants.
  3. The Civil Service Shadow Board (CSSB), which is a collection of civil servants from the departments represented at the CSB. CSSB members, however, are more junior than the representatives on the CSB, and can offer different viewpoints on the issues raised at the CSB.

Departments within the Civil Service

The Civil Service includes a diverse range of central government departments and agencies. 

  • The Attorney General’s Office
  • The Cabinet Office
  • Competition & Markets Authority (CMA)
  • Crown Prosecution Service (CPS)
  • Defence Science and Technology Laboratory (DSTL)
  • Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy (BEIS)
  • Department for Digital, Culture, Media & Sport (DCMS)
  • Department for Education (DfE)
  • Department for Environment Food & Rural Affairs (Defra)
  • Department of Health and Social Care (DHSC)
  • Department for International Trade (DIT)
  • Department for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities (DLUHC)
  • Department for Transport (DfT)
  • Department for Work & Pensions (DWP)
  • Driver & Vehicle Licensing Agency (DVLA)
  • Environmental Standards Scotland (ESS)
  • Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office (FCDO)
  • Government Digital Service (GDS)
  • Governmental Legal Department (GLD)
  • HM Land Registry
  • HM Revenue & Customs (HMRC)
  • HM Treasury
  • Home Office
  • Homes England
  • Intellectual Property Office (IPO)
  • Ministry of Defence (MOD)
  • Ministry of Justice (MOJ)
  • National Crime Agency (NCA)
  • Office for National Statistics (ONS)
  • Office of the Public Guardian (OPG)
  • Planning Inspectorate
  • Serious Fraud Office (SFO)
  • UK Export Finance (UKEF)
  • Valuation Office Agency (VOA)
  • Vehicle Certification Agency (VCA)
  • Welsh Revenue Authority

Which organisations are not included in the Civil Service?

Not all organisations that are funded by the government sit within the Civil Service. For example, the Civil Service does not include organisations, non-ministerial departments, and non-departmental public bodies such as: 

  • The National Health Service (NHS).
  • The BBC.
  • Local governments.
  • The Armed Forces.
  • The National Archives.

What is the largest department in the Civil Service?

The largest department in the Civil Service is the Department for Work and Pensions (DWP) with more than 79,000 staff members. According to the Institute for Government, the five largest departments in the Civil Service employ about 68% of all civil servants. These departments are:

  1. The Department for Work and Pensions.
  2. The Ministry of Justice.
  3. HM Revenue and Customs.
  4. The Ministry of Defence.
  5. The Home Office.

The Civil Service code

Civil servants are obliged to adhere to the Civil Service Code, which was first introduced in 1996, with several updates in the years after.

The code outlines four core values for civil servants.

  1. Honesty – Civil servants should always aim to be truthful and open with one another and with the people they serve and advise.
  2. Integrity – Civil servants need to put the obligations of public service above their personal interests.
  3. Impartiality – Civil servants must be politically neutral.
  4. Objectivity – Civil servants should base their advice and decisions on rigorous analysis of evidence.

If asked to do anything that conflicts with the code – or if they are aware of another civil servant acting in conflict with the four core values – civil servants can raise their concerns within their departments, or directly with the Civil Service Commission. 

How many civil servants are there?

According to Understanding the Civil Service, there were 515,000 civil servants in the UK as of March 2023. This is approximately 1.6% of the UK workforce (which is around 32.9 million people), and 8.9% of all 5.8 million public sector employees in the UK.

Benefits of working in the Civil Service

According to the Civil Service Careers website, those who take a Civil Service job benefit from:

  • working for an evolving and progressive organisation
  • investments in digital technology
  • access to “exceptional learning and development opportunities and a variety of career paths”
  • flexible working arrangements
  • the Civil Service Pension Scheme, which is one of the more enviable pensions offered by UK employers.

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We, not I: why social leadership is the future

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Leaders who rely on their status or title to get things done may find their days are numbered in today’s workplace. Data shows employees are often not fulfilled and engaged to the extent organisations need them to be. In this post-pandemic, 21st century Social Age, what is needed is social leadership: a new emotionally intelligent management style focused on empathy, connection and teamwork.

What exactly is social leadership?

Social leadership describes managers whose leadership style focuses on emotion, empathy, connection, collaboration, and communication. Such leaders are agile in responding to their employee’s needs and recognise how important it is to build strong relationships and instil a social purpose within their team to create a positive work environment.

Rather than using traditional top-down, directive leadership to get things done, managers adopting a social leadership approach will instead use their emotional intelligence and people skills to build social capital, influence others, and enhance their professional development.

We are now living in the successive era to the Digital Age, the so-called ‘Social Age’, according to Julian Stodd of Sea Salt Learning, author of The Social Leadership Handbook and Social Leadership: my first 100 days. The unprecedented connectivity of the Digital Age means old systems of power and control formed during the Manufacturing and Knowledge Ages are being rebalanced. Power now increasingly comes from reputation, rather than the formal leadership given to leaders by an organisation. In a social system, power is given by the community around its leaders, and is earned through authenticity of action.

“Social leadership is a kind of reputation-based authority which sits within social structures. It’s available to anyone, from those in formal authority to those who earn it through their actions. . .The number one thing people look for in social leadership is authentic storytelling. Even if a formal system takes away your voice, if you can share your story with authenticity that gives you great social authority.”

Why do we need social leadership?

Across the board, employee engagement and satisfaction surveys are turning up similar results: people are not feeling engaged and fulfilled in their jobs to the degree organisations need. This style of leadership is therefore more effective in modern workplaces in which employees are increasingly seeking meaning and purpose in their work.

“People join companies and leave managers,” says an article by Be-Leadership, a leadership development consultancy whose clients include industry, charities and government departments. “In this social era, leaders not only hold a real dialogue with their employees and customers, they also need to rethink their role in society. Employees expect organisations of all forms to act responsibly and with purpose, and engage with broader society in a positive way.”

Social leaders tend to be emotionally intelligent, which can lead to better management and staff retention. 

A study of two million employees across 700 different companies carried out by Gallup discovered that employee turnover and productivity is largely attributed to their supervisors. Those employees who had managers with high Emotional Quotient (EQ) were four times less likely to leave their company and more than 70% of their perception of the company culture resulted from these managers’ levels of emotional intelligence. What is more, this translated to higher productivity and profitability among teams whose bosses had high emotional intelligence.

Social leadership development is crucial for ensuring the ethical conduct of organisations as well as for the pursuit sustainability and public value. On his blog, Julian Stodd suggests that in the Social Age in which we live, social leadership could provide the tools to bring about social change and build a better world: “Our challenge is to build the skills, capability, and mindset, to do better: to build organisations that are more fair, to lead, and learn, with humility. To act with kindness and to strive for social justice, in all that we do.”

What are the characteristics of social leadership behaviours?

Some social leaders may have hardwired social skills and a knack for understanding people that makes them a natural at effective leadership, but these social skills can also be learned and practised. Some of the key skills that social leaders have include:

Working together with their team – being fully aware that decisions are made as a team and communication and respect should be supported and nurtured.

Showing vulnerability – for some managers this may feel counter-intuitive, but by not being afraid to show their vulnerability, social leaders are able to be more ‘human’ – open and authentic with those around them, building trust and loyalty.

Listening to their gut – social leaders show intuition and are able to read a situation and make decisions on instinct rather than purely on reasoning.

Caring about others – social leaders genuinely care about others and their wellbeing. Their empathic approach means they can see how decisions impact others and use another’s viewpoint to understand what has happened.

Being courageous and resilient – social leaders can withstand stress and remain balanced in a crisis. What is more: they will do what is right, regardless of how easy that is.

Being a ‘people person’ – they are acutely aware that people and the relationships between them are critical to the healthy functioning of an organisation. 

How do I adopt a social leadership approach?

Clore Social Leadership, part of a dynamic and inclusive resource for leaders in the UK’s arts, culture and creative sectors, has developed an approach to developing social leadership capability gathered from a decade’s work with leading coaches and trainers in the field. They suggest three methodologies and mindsets they believe can help develop a person’s leadership skills and unlock their team’s potential to achieve more together.

  1. Know yourself, be yourself, and look after yourself: Start with self-awareness, critically assessing your strengths, weaknesses, motivations and values. Build your physical and emotional resilience and look after yourself and your wellbeing so you are best equipped to deal with leadership’s many challenges.
  2. Assess the context: Social sector systems are rapidly changing, transforming workplaces, politics, ethics and communities. Social leaders must understand these complexities and be aware of what might lie ahead to steer their teams and organisations and make the most of potential opportunities.
  3. Work with, and through, others: Leaders can’t exist in isolation. They need social skills and empathy to inspire, motivate and empower others, while also celebrating the power that difference brings. Working with and through others involves collaborating, forming partnerships, as well as inspiring and growing other leaders, all while making a positive social impact.

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York MPA graduates go on to a wide range of roles, including in national and local government, international NGOs and charities, the NHS, leading consultancies and accountancy firms, universities, banks, and the Foreign and Commonwealth Office.

What is strategic planning?

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Strategic planning is the process businesses and organisations use to outline their long-term directions and objectives. Through the planning process, organisational leaders determine their overarching vision as well as specific long-term goals, and then map out a plan for achieving each milestone, such as how and when the milestones should be completed.

The outcome of strategic planning is called a strategic plan. This document typically includes:

  • a vision statement outlining the organisation’s aspirations for its future and growth
  • a mission statement, outlining the organisation’s purpose
  • specific goals, objectives, and initiatives to help deliver the organisation’s vision and mission. These goals should be SMART (specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound).
  • an action plan outlining how each goal will be achieved, including resources, tactics, and dates
  • Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) – quantifiable measurements and metrics used to gauge strategic, financial, and operational performance.

Once completed, a strategic plan should be shared across the business so teams can use it to inform short-term goals, such as specific projects and other actions and decisions, and help deliver on the wider strategic aims of the organisation. 

It’s also important for an organisation to continually review its strategic plan. Using information gleaned from its SMART goals, KPIs, and so on, businesses can evaluate the current trajectory of their strategic plan, and make adjustments and revisions – or even large changes – to help keep things on track and progressing on schedule.

The benefits of strategic planning

An effective strategic plan can bring a number of benefits to an organisation. For example, it can:

  • create and maintain a competitive advantage
  • support business decision-making
  • identify new opportunities for growth

Steps in the strategic planning process

The strategic planning process can vary from organisation to organisation, but typically has five key steps.

Identify

When starting a successful planning process, the first step is assessing the organisation’s current strategic position. Relevant stakeholders can review key information, such as:

  • Past strategic plans. Previous strategic plans – including their vision and mission statements – can provide a helpful roadmap for new strategy formulation. For example, they might inform the methodology used for setting new objectives, or can even act as templates for the new strategic plan document.
  • Existing organisational data. This might include sales figures, finance and cash flow numbers, online engagement figures, reputational analyses, human resources data, and so on.
  • The current external business environment. Available data might include reports on industry and market conditions, competitor analyses, emergent trends, and customer insight such as information about target client demographics.

This first step in the process also includes defining the organisation’s longer term vision. Whether the organisation is a new startup or a long-standing nonprofit, there needs to be a clear understanding about what the future state of the organisation looks like. These conversations should include all members of the senior leadership team alongside other key stakeholders, and together they should discuss topics such as:

  • strategic issues
  • organisational values
  • ideas around a strategic framework and strategy execution

Prioritise

The second step in strategy development is setting and prioritising strategic goals. These organisational goals should all align with – and help deliver on – the vision outlined in the first planning step. They should also be prioritised according to their impact, relevance, importance, and urgency. The goal-setting process should also identify any necessary resource requirements, deadlines, and KPIs.

Develop

During the third step of the strategic management process, planners outline the steps and tactics required to deliver the business strategy. This development stage is one of the key elements of the process because it determines how the vision, mission, and business goals will be achieved.

During this stage:

  • responsibilities are outlined
  • short-term tactical plans are developed
  • Strategy communications are shared more widely 

Implement

During the fourth stage of the strategic planning process, the strategic plan is implemented and managed. Executing the plan may include:

  • communicating the plan to all staff and stakeholders
  • Writing new policies and processes or amending existing ones 
  • establishing systems for measurement and reporting
  • assigning responsibilities

Review

The final step towards delivering on strategic organisational goals is reviewing progress, and then revising the strategic plan as necessary. By measuring and evaluating the results of the plan in either real-time  or on a quarterly or annual basis –  organisations can adapt and optimise as needed. 

Strategic planning tools

There are a number of valuable tools for strategic planning. 

SWOT analysis

One of the most valuable tools for strategic planning, particularly in the first stage, is a SWOT analysis. A SWOT analysis is used to identify an organisation’s:

  • strengths
  • weaknesses
  • opportunities
  • threats

Completing a SWOT analysis allows planners to comprehensively assess an organisation’s current position and then plan the organisation’s goals accordingly.

Balanced scorecard

A balanced scorecard is a performance review tool that’s used to identify and improve strategic business activities. To create the scorecard, organisational data is gathered in four key areas:

  1. Finance 
  2. Customers
  3. Business processes
  4. Learning and growth

This tool is especially helpful during the final review stage of the strategic planning process.

Strategy map

Strategy maps are tools used to help illustrate and visualise a strategic plan. They are particularly useful during the second and third steps of strategic planning – setting and prioritising goals, and developing tactics – because they help organisations easily identify gaps in their plans.

The difference between strategic planning, business planning, and operational planning

Business planning – as well as operational planning – are often confused with strategic planning.While closely linked, they are different processes with different purposes. 

Strategic planning considers long-term visions and goals, while business and operational planning are focused on day-to-day business activities that deliver on short-term goals. 

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One of the core modules on this flexible masters degree explores strategic planning. It will introduce you to the main themes, concepts, and practices of strategic planning and management. Students are given practical skills and opportunities to use the skills in work-based and case-study scenarios.  The module will also enable you to analyse and evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of strategic planning in the public and not-for-profit sectors.

Strategic management theories: supporting leaders to achieve their business objectives

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Modern, turbulent business environments demand business leaders to develop approaches that can respond to change, adversity and unpredictability. Leaders who fail in this endeavour are likely to find their businesses outcompeted, outmanoeuvred, and obsolete.

Top management executives are cognisant of this and are keen to design and develop methods of avoiding this fate. Dynamic capabilities – an organisation’s ability to adapt to the environment in which it finds itself – together with strategic, plan-focused leadership may hold the answer.

What is strategic management?

Successful leaders ensure that company resources are used in the best possible ways to achieve both short-term and long-term business objectives. Strategic management is a universal business strategy which drives the organisation toward these objectives.

Strategic management is the highly organised, continuous process of planning, monitoring, and adapting progress towards a company’s objectives and ambitions. It enables businesses of all types and sizes to evaluate their overall progress and performance and make adjustments to their operations and activities to better align themselves with their goal-orientated roadmaps.

Responsive, continuous strategic management allows businesses to remain resilient in ever-evolving environments and situations. Changes in both internal and external business environments – from staffing issues, to new industry regulations, to shifting customer demands – can happen at any time. A business which can alter its course of action by flexibly leveraging resources, assets and other core competencies in response to change and adversity is well-placed to remain on track and enjoy superior performance, while simultaneously managing its transaction costs.

There are a number of other key benefits to strategic management and strategic decision-making:

  • Stakeholders are aligned with business objectives, facilitating operations and establishing a shared, cohesive corporate culture
  • Businesses are more likely to achieve their desired ambitions, goals, and key performance indicators (KPIs)
  • Performance can be measured, monitored, and managed in line with planned targets
  • Systems, processes, and business units and activities are better aligned with the wider vision
  • Cost savings are made due to better allocation of resources and return on investment (ROI)
  • Businesses are able to develop in a structured manner and grow in resilience, sustainability, and flexibility
  • Key activities and projects such as the launch of new products or services can be prioritised according to the overarching plan.

A direct result of these strategic planning benefits is an increase in competitive advantages. 

What are the main strategic management theories?

There are various schools of thought in the field of strategic management:

  • Profit‐maximising and competition‐based theory – the main business objective is to maximise long-term profit and develop a sustainable competitive advantage over other businesses. This industrial-organisation (I/O) perspective deems external market positioning as the most important factor incompetitiveness.
  • Resource‐based theory – a company’s competitive advantage is found in its internal firm resources, competencies, and capabilities rather than its positioning in the external environment.
  • Survival‐based theory – the concept that an organisation must continuously adapt to its competitive environment if it is to survive.
  • Human resource-based theory – the notion that human factors of an organisation are the most critical elements in the strategic process.
  • Agency theory – the importance of the underlying relationships between company owners and company managers, in this context referred to as shareholders and agents.
  • Contingency theory – businesses should design an appropriate management strategy for the situations and conditions they encounter.here is no isolated, best approach to organisational management.

Gary Hamel and C. K. Pralahad’s strategic intent theory is based on the concept that ‘Western companies focus on trimming ambitions to match resources.’This strategy only searches for advantages that can be sustained. In contrast, Japanese corporations ‘leverage resources by accelerating the pace of organisational learning,’ a methodology that enables them to conceptualise and achieve bigger goals. Motivating workforces with  global vision reinforced by strong leadership may prove a more useful strategy that doesn’t set its own limitations and constraints.

The key tenets of strategic intent are:

  •   capturing the essence of winning
  •   stability over time
  •   setting targets that inspire personal effort and commitment.

Ultimately, the competitive strategy and theory chosen by any leadership team will differ based on its assessment of what the business requires to reach its goals. Whatever the chosen approach, most businesses will do well to factor in Michael Porter’s three strategies to maximise competitive advantage: cost leadership, differentiation, and market segmentation. Additionally, Porter highlights the importance of evaluating the substitutes of any organisation’s products or services.

What is the strategic management process?

Strategy formulation should underpin and inform an organisation’s business model. It generally includes four key steps which apply to both new businesses and established organisations:analysis, formation, execution, and evaluation and control.

  1. Analysis. First, identify and clarify business intentions in line with the organisational mission statement. Use a SWOT analysis to investigate the correlation between the intentions and current performance, gather data and information from stakeholders, and conduct risk management evaluations. This information, together with a clear idea of company objectives, will inform the strategic approach.
  2. Formation. Design a SMART (specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and time-bound) action plan based on achieving the objectives to serve as a framework for activities, resource allocation, contingencies, and other considerations.
  3. Execution. Once all stakeholders are up-to-date with the plan and resources are where they need to be, the plan can get underway. For example, business processes in need of restructuring are reorganised in line with the plan and ready to go.
  4. Evaluation and control. Assess progress so far, benchmarking any progress made against the original objectives and goals. Depending on the outcome, corrective action and alternative plans may be required.  

Remember: each action should be purposeful and intended to bring business activities  into alignment with overarching strategic objectives. In-depth research and articles detailing the process – as well as wider expertise in the field of management strategy – can be found in the Strategic Management Journal, the Journal of Management, and other leading international journals.

The balanced scorecard

Robert S. Kaplan and David P. Norton’s balanced scorecard (BSC) provides a quick, detailed insight into overall company performance, enabling leaders to gain an objective view of the firm.

Examining performance through the scorecard’s four key measures – financial analysis, customer analysis, internal analysis, and learning and growth perspectives – offers holistic feedback that allows business owners to make strategic changes in a timely manner. Additionally, it exposes key areas that require urgent intervention and informs how action plans may be revisited and redeveloped in light of organisational performance and health.

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Software systems: an explainer

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Software is what most people interact with when they use a computer or mobile device. Written in programming code, software is the set of instructions that enable computer hardware, systems, programmes, and applications to operate and perform tasks. 

Types of software 

There are several different types of software, all serving different functions. The software systems used today can largely be categorised into a few key areas:

  • system software
  • application software
  • utility software
  • programming software.

System software

System software manages a computer system’s resources. It works in partnership with computer hardware and other software – such as applications – to provide the end-user interface.

Examples of system software include:

Operating systems

An operating system, or OS, is one of the most important pieces of software on a computer, managing all of the other computer programmes installed on the device. Popular examples include Microsoft Windows, Mac OS, Android OS, and Linux.

Application software typically uses an application programme interface (API) to interact with the OS. Users, meanwhile, interact with the operating system itself through one of two user interfaces:

  • a command-line interface (CLI) user interface, such as MS-DOS
  • more commonly, a graphical user interface (GUI), such as Windows

Device drivers

Driver software manages any device or peripherals that connect to a computer. For example, a printer connected to a computer will need an appropriate driver in order to work as expected. 

Other devices that require drivers include:

  • computer mice
  • keyboards
  • speakers and headphones
  • modems and routers
  • sound cards
  • USB storage devices.

Firmware

Firmware is an essential piece of software because it ensures that hardware works as it’s intended, and manages some of the most basic functions of a machine. Firmware is typically embedded and installed directly into a piece of hardware by its manufacturer. Once a device is switched on, firmware is what boots up the computer by initialising its hardware components and loading its operating system. 

Application software

Application software is responsible for performing specific tasks and functions for users. Rather than managing how the computer or device operates, this type of software is designed and developed according to the specifications and needs of people using the machines.

Examples of application software include:

Web browsers

Web browsers, such as Google Chrome or Apple’s Safari, are software applications that allow people to access and use the web. Anyone accessing a standard website uses a web browser to do so.

Word processors

Word processors, used to write and edit text, are among the oldest computer applications. Examples include Microsoft Word and Google Docs.

Multimedia software

Multimedia applications are used to view, create, edit, and manage media content. This includes:

  • images
  • videos
  • audio.

Windows Media Player, iTunes, and Adobe PhotoShop are all examples of multimedia software. When referring specifically to graphics content, such as videos, images, infographics, and so on, the term graphics software is also applicable.

Communication software

Any computer programme that’s used to communicate with other people – including through text, audio, and video – is an example of communication software. This includes:

  • Microsoft Outlook and Teams
  • Skype
  • Zoom.

Utility software

Utility software is often considered a subtype of system software, but its focus is specifically on helping to configure, maintain, or optimise a computer’s hardware and software architecture.

Examples of utility software include:

Security software

Security software, such as antivirus software, protects a device’s hardware and software from viruses and other threats. It ideally monitors a computer in real time, scanning existing programmes, incoming files and downloads, and shielding against any attacks by cybercriminals.

File compression software

Compression software helps condense files and other data so it takes up less storage space on a device. These tools also ensure condensed data can be safely managed and restored to its original format when required.

Middleware

Middleware straddles systems and application software, and effectively enables different computer programmes to interact with one another. According to IBM, middleware “enables developers to build applications without having to create a custom integration every time they need to connect to application components (services or microservices), data sources, computing resources or devices.”

Programming software

Programming software is what programmers and developers use to write code and develop new software programmes.

Examples of programming software include:

Programming language translators

Computing or programming language translators can translate one form of code into other programming languages. There are three main types:

  1. Compilers, which convert whole programmes written in programming languages, such as Java or C++, into machine language.
  2. Assemblers, which convert code in assembly languages into machine language.
  3. Interpreters, which can execute instructions written in a programming or scripting language, rather than requiring that these languages be first compiled into machine code enabling rapid programme development, ease of use, portability, and safety.

Debuggers

Debugging tools are used by programmers to test for – and then resolve – errors and issues within programmes. 

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You will also study other key areas required for software development, such as advanced programming, computer architecture and operating systems, algorithms and data structures, and artificial intelligence and machine learning.

This flexible degree has been designed for working professionals and graduates who may not currently have a computer science background but want to launch a career in the cutting-edge field. You can learn part-time around your current work and home commitments, and because the degree is taught exclusively online, you can study whenever and wherever you want. 

For further information about tuition fees, English language requirements, coursework, and other courses available with the Department of Computer Science at the University of York, please visit the University of York website.

Building interconnected worlds with network architecture

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Today’s internet users – from global businesses to individuals with network devices – have come to rely on instant, seamless, reliable and flexible methods of connecting. As such, our digital age is founded on the design and maintenance of network operating systems that enable us to live, work and communicate with ease – wherever we happen to be in the world.

Organisations who rely on technological advancements – for example, telecommunication, shared networks, algorithms, and software that enables application programming interface (API) – rely on individuals with specialist computer science skills such as network design and network functions. An ever-growing sector, computing expertise – and the ability to apply it to achieve business goals – is in increasing demand.

What is network architecture?

Computer networks are built and designed to serve the needs of clients and users. Network architecture, therefore, is the way in which these computer networks are structured to meet device connectivity requirements. In this context, devices refers to servers, end-user devices and smart technologies.

There are different types of network architecture that are used for various purposes and applications. Some common examples of networks include:

  • access networks and local-area networks (LANs) – used to support, connect and on-board users and share systems within a distinct geographical area via a central server, such as a workforce within an office building
  • wide-area networks (WANs) – used to connect users, often over long distances, such as healthcare professionals to health systems and applications
  • data centres – used to connect servers where data and applications are hosted and make them accessible to users
  • intranets – used to connect computers for a certain group of users across a network
  • cloud computing – used to meet the on-demand delivery of resources over the Internet, including private clouds, public clouds, multi-clouds and hybrid clouds.

Systems are set up in a variety of ways, depending on need. For example, businesses can choose between options such as peer-to-peer architecture (P2P) – where all devices on the system have the same capabilities, used by platforms such as Bitcoin and BitTorrent – or more traditional client/server networks where some devices are set up to ‘serve’ others, used by Amazon and for devices such as the Apple watch.

Computer science specialists working to design and arrange intricate systems will also need to consider network topology: how various connections and nodes are arranged, both logically and physically, in a network. Examples of network topologies include bus, star, ring, mesh, tree and hybrid.

What are the components of network architectures?

Building and maintaining networks can be complex and challenging – especially in a world where expectations are ever-higher, and needs and requirements change over time. To offer solutions that help to manage modern network architectures, network architects have a variety of components at their disposal.

Controller-led set-ups are critical to scaling and securing networks. Controllers respond to evolving business needs and aim to drastically simplify operations; business intent is translated into device configurations and network functions are automated. Controller-led systems continuously monitor devices connected to the network to ensure that performance and security standards are met and maintained.

Multi-domain (or cross-network) integrations are designed to share and exchange relevant operating parameters, with multiple networks communicating via controllers. This helps to ensure that organisational outcomes which span networking domains are delivered.

Intent-based working (IBN) focuses on setting up networks in order to achieve an organisation’s desired outcomes. It relies heavily on automation to integrate business processes, review network performance, identify issues and enable security measures.

What is the open systems interconnection (OSI) model?

The OSI model enables disparate and diverse systems to communicate using standard protocols. A conceptual model developed by the International Organization for Standardization, it’s best thought of as a single, universal language required for computer networking. It helps to identify and troubleshoot issues with networks.

There are seven layers to the OSI model, each responsible for a specific task and required to communicate with the layers both above and below itself:

  1.       Physical layer
  2.       Data link layer
  3.       Network layer
  4.       Transport layer
  5.       Session layer
  6.       Presentation layer
  7.       Application layer.

What is the role of a network architect?

With the expansion of wireless and mobile networks – alongside more traditional versions – network architects are in increasing demand.

A network architect’s job is to create and implement layouts and plans for data communication networks. Their responsibilities are likely to include advising organisations on where they might need networks, how these will work in practice, and any benefits or drawbacks to using particular types of network – so having a keen understanding of organisational goals and wider plans is key. Essentially, they help businesses to create a cohesive framework with which their employees can communicate and share information, access systems and servers, and do their jobs. As a result, most network architects work closely with chief information officers to predict and plan for where new or different networks will be required. They often work within a wider team comprising computer systems engineers and other computer science-related roles.

As well as planning data communication networks and their logistics, further responsibilities of network architects can include:

  • researching new network technologies
  • analysing current data and network traffic to forecast future growth and its implications for networks and bandwidth requirements
  • planning network security measures, such as patches, authentication, back-ups and firewalls, and testing vulnerabilities
  • assessing what additional hardware is required, such as network drivers, cables, wifi capabilities, routers and adaptors, and how this will be implemented.

It can be a lucrative career: job and career specialists, Reed, state that the average salary for a network architect in the UK is £94,842 – a figure that can be far exceeded depending on factors such as individual experience, seniority of role, location and sector type.

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What are the most important skills in software development?

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Software development is the area of computer science focused on designing, building, implementing, and supporting computer software. Software is what enables systems and applications to operate and perform tasks, which means that software development is an essential role in the technology sector and other digital industries.

According to IBM, software development is typically done by programmers, software engineers, and software developers, with plenty of interaction and overlap between these roles.

Programmers, often referred to as coders, write code and typically receive instructions from software developers and engineers.

Software developers are more actively involved than programmers in steering software development. While they may assist in writing code, they can also assist in turning requirements into features, managing development processes, and testing and maintaining developed software.

Software engineers are solutions-focused and apply scientific engineering principles to build software and systems that solve problems. 

It’s worth noting, however, that the essential skills needed for successful software development remain constant regardless of who is doing the development work. So whether a person is a programmer, software developer, or software engineer, they will still need to develop a number of important technical and interpersonal abilities.

Technical knowledge needed for software development

Software development links to several important areas of computer science, so it’s important that software developers have technical skills or knowledge in these core areas.

Programming

Computer programming skills and coding are among the most vital for software development, because they are what allow developers to write the source code for software. Software development typically requires knowledge in programming languages or coding languages such as:

  • HTML
  • CSS
  • Java
  • JavaScript
  • C#
  • C++
  • Python
  • Ruby

Programmers aren’t expected to know all programming languages, but should definitely specialise in a few of them.

Operating systems

Operating system software controls computer hardware, and enables things such as applications and programmes to run. The most commonly used operating systems include:

Operating systems on mobile devices, meanwhile, are typically either iOS or Android.

Version control

Also known as source control or source control management (SCM), version control ensures that code revisions during software development – both front-end and back-end development, as well as other types of development work, such as web development – are tracked. This means that multiple developers can work on a project simultaneously, and that changes can be shared, merged, or rolled back as needed.

The most commonly used version control system is Git, a free and open-source tool used to manage and track source code history. Git repositories can be managed through cloud-based hosting services such as GitHub, GitLab, and Apache Subversion (SVN).

Algorithms and data structures

Software is often optimised through algorithms and data structures. Data structures provide organisational frameworks for storing information, and algorithms are commonly used to sort data. Together, they can ensure software performs efficiently and effectively.

Database management

Software development will inevitably require interaction with an organisation’s database, which means software developers must be able to insert, alter, update, delete, secure, and retrieve data from within a database. This typically requires familiarity with structured query language (SQL) databases, such as MySQL or Oracle.

Integrated development environments (IDEs)

An integrated development environment, or IDE, is a user-friendly environment for software development. An IDE typically includes a source code editor, debug tool, and compiler, among other useful tools. Popular examples include Eclipse and Visual Studio.

Containers

Knowing how to use development containers, such as Docker, is becoming one of the fundamentals among software engineer skills. Containers package up software code and all dependencies so that the application can be deployed efficiently and reliably.

Current and emerging tech trends

As technology continues to rapidly evolve, so too must software engineers and developers. There are a number of growing areas within software development, such as the following.

  • Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning: AI and machine learning have grown significantly in the past decade, and this trend is expected to continue as organisations and businesses continue to expand their use in areas such as automation and personalisation. 
  • Cloud computing: Cloud-based platforms offer computer resources – particularly data storage – remotely. Commonly used cloud platforms include Amazon Web Services (AWS) and Microsoft Azure.
  • Blockchain: Blockchain is the technology that supports cryptocurrencies, but its applications across all sectors and industries are virtually limitless.

Interpersonal skills needed for software development

There are several non-technical but still essential software developer skills. These interpersonal skills can help ensure that business requirements are clearly understood and met, that project management runs smoothly and seamlessly, and that issues are quickly identified and resolved.

Teamwork

Professional software development is rarely, if ever, done in true isolation. The development process usually requires a development team to support everything from initial design ideas to testing and maintaining the software. Team members may be called upon to collaborate together, so it’s important that developers understand how to interact respectfully and productively with one another, with a focus on cooperation and problem-solving.

Communication

Communication skills are among the most important interpersonal abilities or soft skills a software developer needs. Good communication ensures that requirements are fully understood, and that challenges can be clearly articulated and addressed. This is particularly important in fields such as software development, where ideas and information are often complex, and clear feedback is required at most stages of the process.

Attention to detail

A software development project typically has several moving pieces, so it’s important that software engineers and developers can keep a close eye on small details that could create large issues if not addressed early on.

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You will also study other key areas required for software development, such as advanced programming, computer architecture and operating systems, algorithms and data structures, and artificial intelligence and machine learning.

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Public administration: serving the needs of the people

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While public services and public administration is largely the purview of government, the real-world application of its planning, orchestration and development and performance can be a far larger, and more-complex, affair. Prospects, a specialist in graduate careers, estimates that there are 5.6 million individuals working in the public sector in the United Kingdom. Add this to the number of people working in public administration-adjacent capacities outside the public sector, and the number is far higher still.

In our daily lives, we may be unaware of the sheer scale of service provision, but those working both at the frontline and in behind-the-scenes capacities perform critical roles that have an effect on our individual livelihoods and that of wider society. But what does public administration involve – and what careers are available to those interested in working in public affairs and public management?

What is public administration?

Public administration refers to the sector – which, depending on the country, may be governmental, public sector, private sector, non-profit organisations and local agencies – that works to meet the needs of the public, and maintain a civil society through public policy and programme coordination. A wide-ranging field, it encompasses the planning, organising, directing, coordination and control of national and local government operations.

In the UK, the term civil servants refers to those who are employed by ‘His Majesty’s Civil Service’.and, collectively, the Civil Service “helps the government of the day develop and implement its policies as effectively as possible.” An independent body – but one that is overseen and managed by the prime minister – its work spans various agencies, central government departments and non-departmental government bodies (NDPBs). The Civil Service does not include: individuals working for the National Health Service (NHS); the police; the British Armed Forces; government ministers or officers of local government or NPDBs; or those working for the Royal Household.

The Civil Service adheres to four overarching standards.

  • Integrity: the obligations of public service must come before personal interests.
  • Honesty: the Civil Service must be truthful and open.
  • Objectivity: advice and decisions must be rigorous and evidence-based.
  • Impartiality: the Civil Service must act according to the merits of the case, and equally serve governments of all political parties.

What does public administration involve?

Public service is a complex, fast-paced and changeable environment, characterised by the pressure to deliver in critical areas of need but often with limited resources. It requires individuals with the ability to navigate complicated policy issues – grounded in multiple, competing contexts – and improve service performance.

It has a broad remit, generally encompassing law enforcement, education, health and social care, all levels of government, business administration, and more. As such, its responsibilities are equally broad, although the specifics of public administration vary from country to country. Responsibilities are likely to include, for example:

  • public safety
  • social policy
  • community development
  • crisis management
  • sustainability
  • environmental management

The individual roles of public servants vary considerably. While policy making and policy analysis dictates much of the overall work, examples of wider roles may include:

  • political risk analyst
  • company secretary
  • education administrator
  • equality, diversity and inclusion manager
  • government social research officer
  • intelligence analyst
  • statistician
  • health service manager
  • environmental health practitioner
  • corporate treasurer
  • diplomatic service officer

Public administration in a business context

Management practice in public service and governmental environments continues to be shaped by concepts regarding government – from its leadership, performance and efficacy to its efficiency, organisation and drivers.

There is much to learn from public administration trends and activities.

  • How is performance measured and improved?
  • What accountability mechanisms are built into the process?
  • What is the nature of leadership and how can it impact societal and cultural change – both within, and external to, a services context?
  • How is evidence gathered and used as a basis for effecting change, influencing policy, making decisions and developing solutions?
  • What can it teach us about fiscal management, wider reforms, working within tight constraints and enhancing performance?
  • How do government policies impact the way business is conducted?

Pursuing a career within public administration

While there is no specific path to a career in the public administration field, the vast majority of positions require a university degree and, often, skills across business and management.

Depending on the career ambition – and which level, or either seniority or experience a role requires – it may be useful to undertake specific undergraduate or postgraduate study for that area. There are plenty of higher education institutions to choose from, and course focus is wide-ranging. You can choose courses tailored to your professional development needs, for example across fields such as public policy, labour relations, programme development or public finance. Master’s degrees are generally required for management-level positions and roles that directly develop and implement public programmes.

Work experience and other professional experience can help to set you apart from other graduates, as well as giving you valuable insight into the workings of the sector. It may be helpful to have an academic background in social science or political science, but it is not essential. Entry requirements, part-time and full-time study options, tuition fees and other details vary by provider – for further information, ordering prospectuses or attending open days can help you to make an informed choice.

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Our flexible MPA degree offers an in-depth, holistic and contemporary view of the decision making, strategic planning, financial management and leadership involved in effective public administration. Expand your knowledge through specialist modules as you discover a multi-dimensional approach to administration which spans policy process, organisational and human contexts, and the wider environment that dictates public service demands and limitations. 

What is the voluntary sector?

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The voluntary sector, often referred to as the third sector, sits outside of the public and private sectors to focus exclusively on creating social impact and community change.

Other names for the voluntary sector include:

  • the not-for-profit sector.
  • the non-profit sector.
  • the community sector.
  • civil society.

As its name implies, the voluntary sector is largely fueled by the efforts of volunteers who work together to achieve common goals, as well as donations and other forms of monetary contributions, such as grants and fundraising.

Voluntary sector organisations are typically run by independent boards that set strategic priorities and objectives that are based on values, rather than profits. Voluntary organisations operate without influence from private shareholders or governmental mandates.

Why is the voluntary sector important?

The voluntary sector often acts as a safety net to catch people who fall outside of government or other public sector support. For example, vulnerable people without access to safe housing may find affordable accommodation through certain voluntary sector organisations, while people struggling to make ends meet can access food banks or other forms of support or advice.

In addition to offering services directly to people in need, the voluntary sector also promotes and advocates for wider, long-term social or systemic change on behalf of marginalised communities. 

Issues tackled by organisations within the voluntary sector often include:

  • discrimination or inequalities on the basis of characteristics such as race, gender, sexual orientation, age, mental health, physical abilities, and so on
  • inaffordable housing
  • food insecurity
  • domestic violence
  • climate change

The work of the voluntary sector is particularly important as a result of the coronavirus pandemic and the cost-of-living and inflation crises.

According to the UK’s National Council for Voluntary Organisations (NCVO), use of voluntary sector services rose during the pandemic, and demand for charity support continues to increase, while resources are becoming increasingly limited. In fact, the NCVO says that the new cost-of-living crisis “will affect every charity – whatever their size or cost.”

The NCVO also reports that the voluntary sector contributes about £20bn to the UK’s GDP, spending £56.9bn in 2019/20.

Examples of voluntary sector organisations

There are several different types of voluntary sector organisations.

Charities

Charitable organisations make up the bulk of the voluntary sector, and frequently provide a number of invaluable social services, support services, and care services.

Community groups 

Community groups are voluntary organisations that work to provide a public or local community benefit. For example, groups may organise social events for seniors or young people, or focus on community development.

Social co-operatives (co-ops)

Co-ops are organisations that are owned and controlled by their individual members in order to meet their collective needs.

Community interest companies (CICs)

A community interest company, or CIC, is part of the social enterprise sector. It is a limited company that’s set up to achieve social objectives and benefit a particular community, rather than private shareholders. 

Credit unions

A credit union is a financial institution – like a bank. Much like a co-operative, credit union are  owned and controlled by its members.

Foundations

Foundations are organisations set up for the purpose of providing grants to charitable or philanthropic projects and similar social change endeavours. 

Religious and faith-based organisations

Churches, temples, and mosques all fall under the voluntary sector umbrella, working on behalf of their communities.

Culture and recreation groups

Youth, arts, and sporting groups are not-for-profit organisations that are typically run by volunteers.

Parent teacher associations

Parent teacher associations, or PTAs, are volunteer organisations that aim to enrich schools for children.

Non-governmental organisations (NGOs)

NGOs can operate locally or globally, and typically focus on large-scale issues such as environmental or social care advocacy, or human rights work.

Who funds the voluntary sector?

While the voluntary sector focuses on its social objectives rather than turning a profit, its organisations still usually need funds to operate. In the United Kingdom, this funding usually comes in from a few different sources, such as:

  • charitable donations from the public
  • grants from foundations and trusts, as well as local and national governments; this also includes the National Lottery Community Fund, which distributes more than £600m a year to community organisations
  • government contracts that award funds to organisations that deliver public services
  • investments and other assets, such as property
  • charity shops

What is the difference between the public sector and the voluntary sector?

There is some overlap between the public sector and the voluntary sector – for example, both aim to serve the public or their communities – however, the voluntary sector falls outside of government jurisdiction and control, and its organisations are focused entirely on their social purpose. 

For example, the NHS is a public sector organisation offering statutory services, while The Health Foundation is a voluntary sector organisation: an independent charity that offers grants to frontline healthcare providers, services, and carers, and carries out research and policy analysis to help improve healthcare within the NHS.

What do voluntary sector workers do?

The voluntary sector relies heavily on its volunteers, but larger organisations often need to hire paid staff to cover specific roles. Voluntary sector organisations, particularly larger or growing ones, are usually structured to include a board of trustees, paid staff to manage operations, as well as volunteer workers.

Trustees

Trustees are volunteers who help guide the direction of a charitable organisation to ensure all actions align with its vision, purpose, and goals. Trustees are also responsible for safeguarding the organisation’s assets and overseeing strategic decision-making.

Paid staff

Voluntary sector employees are responsible for the day-to-day operations of their organisations. The National Council for Voluntary Organisations recently reported that almost 1 million people worked in the voluntary sector last year, with the sector’s workforce growing by 3% in 2022 – the fastest growth of any sector over the past decade.

Volunteers

Volunteers are the heart of the voluntary sector. According to the UK’s National Council for Voluntary Organisations, 16.3 million people volunteered with a group, club, or organisation in 2020/21. Additionally, more than half of the population volunteered their time informally at least once during the pandemic.

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How to use social media for global marketing

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Social media connects people around the planet in powerful and unprecedented ways. As the world becomes increasingly globalised, social media plays an important role in fostering real-time communication and understanding between different peoples, cultures, and countries. 

Social media is also credited with connecting organisations and individuals in similarly new ways, eroding the barriers that used to exist between brands and consumers, and opening the door to direct communication and engagement. According to Statista, increased exposure “is the most commonly cited advantage of using social media for marketing purposes among global industry professionals,” with billions of active social media users as a potential advertising audience. Improved web traffic, lead generation, and increased loyalty are listed as further reasons why marketers use social networks in their campaigns. 

All of this means that social media is a persuasive force in global marketing – and vice versa. It informs and influences preferred marketing channels and tactics, and helps marketers tailor their messages and strategies to the specific needs of international consumers in the worldwide market.

Marketing professionals who want to use social media for effective global marketing need to first consider a few key questions.

  • What is the organisation’s aim for being on social media?
  • Who is the organisation’s target audience?
  • What are the right social media platforms for the organisation’s brand, aims, and audience?

Creating purpose

Many organisations create a Facebook or Twitter account without really understanding why they’re doing so, or stopping to consider their aim on any of the social media platforms that they join. 

Before creating logins for all the latest platforms, or joining TikTok just because that’s where Gen Z is, marketers need to first consider their purpose for joining any social media platform. Is it to build brand awareness and reputation? Is it to create a loyal customer base through social media-based customer service? Is it monetisation, or to drive e-commerce sales, a tactic known as social commerce? Any and all of these aims are valid ones, but knowing them before embarking on a social media campaign can help ensure the campaign’s success.

Engaging a target audience

Social media algorithms mean that marketers can target specific audiences, but in order to maximise on these sophisticated tools, marketers need to first understand precisely who they’re trying to communicate with. 

For example, an organisation might prefer to directly target potential customers within a particular demographic or geographic region, or it might choose to instead direct its messaging towards media professionals or social media influencers who could assist in raising brand awareness. 

Understanding the target audience also helps ensure that marketers can tailor their messages accordingly, whether it’s for specific time zones, languages, or cultural sensitives. 

Social media platforms

The sheer number of potential social media apps on Apple iOS and Android can be intimidating for some marketers, especially when new social media platforms seem to crop up regularly and others appear to fall unexpectedly out of fashion. However, few businesses will appear on all platforms, and the staples for global marketers remain Facebook, Instagram, and LinkedIn.

Ultimately, though, the platforms an organisation uses should be directly linked to its social media marketing purpose and audience. For example, if the organisation’s target market is in China, it makes more sense to be on Weibo than on Facebook.

Facebook

Facebook is the most well-known of all social networking sites, and boasts more than two billion monthly active users. Facebook’s user base is encouraged to post updates to their connections – typically friends and family members. Other integrations within the platform include games, an online marketplace, and online event functionality such as live video streaming as well as live audio, such as podcasts.  

Facebook also includes a popular instant messaging app, Facebook Messenger, which enables texting as well as audio and video calls.

Instagram

Instagram is a photo-sharing social media platform known for its influencer marketing. It also supports video content formats, and is a popular tool for marketing products available on e-commerce sites.

Linkedin

LinkedIn is the go-to social media network for working professionals, and is frequently utilised for digital marketing strategies’ brand-building and reputation-building activities.

TikTok

TikTok is a short-form video social media platform and is particularly popular with younger generations. In fact, many young people now prefer to use TikTok, rather than Google, to search for information.

Twitter

Twitter is the microblogging platform that popularised hashtags and includes new features such as Twitter Spaces for live audio conversations.

Snapchat

Snapchat allows users to share messages and images for a brief window of time before the content is no longer accessible.

YouTube

YouTube is the world’s largest video-sharing platform, and sits among Google’s homepage and Facebook in terms of visits.

Twitch

Twitch is a live-streaming platform popular with gamers, and is often used for esports competition streaming as well as music broadcasts.

Discord

Discord is a decentralised social platform that allows users to join communities – called servers – that suit their interests. The platform supports real-time text, voice, and video chats, as well as file and media sharing, and servers can be private or public spaces. 

WhatsApp

WhatsApp is a global instant messaging platform that supports text messages as well as voice and video calls, file and location sharing, and end-to-end encryption.

Clubhouse

Clubhouse is a relatively new social network, launching towards the beginning of the coronavirus pandemic in early 2020. It’s described as a social audio app that supports audio chat rooms, and was initially invite-only.

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This programme is studied part-time and 100% online, so you can continue to work full-time as you focus on your professional development. Through research and taught modules, you’ll learn about management strategy, contemporary topics in global business, leading and managing organisational change, and how to manage across cultures, among other important areas of business.

Public finance: an explainer

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Public finance is the term used to discuss income, spending, and debt within the public sector. 

In the United Kingdom, the public sector is formed of governments at all levels – including national and local governments – as well as their publicly funded institutions and services, such as the National Health Service (NHS), the police and armed forces, and welfare benefits such as state pensions. This means that the economic resources that the public sector generates, allocates, and manages are public money and assets. 

It is one of the key functions of government to appropriately manage its public finances and effectively allocate its resources. Governments and other public institutions are accountable to the people they represent and serve for the decisions they make, whether it’s how they generate revenue, how they determine their public expenditures, or how they manage public debt.

The scope of public finance

Setting taxes 

In the United Kingdom, only the government can propose legislation to raise public revenue through taxation, or to use public funds to pursue policy objectives. These proposals are made to Parliament, which then needs to approve the legislation. Once approved, government ministers can carry out their policies within their relevant departments. HM Treasury, meanwhile, is responsible for overseeing the individual department budgets that are allocated from the central budgets it administers. 

What is the difference between public finance and taxation?

Public finance is often conflated with taxation, but while they’re indelibly linked, the two are not the same. Taxation is a method of generating public finance funding. For example, in the UK, taxation can include levies such as personal income tax, national insurance contributions, corporation tax, and the value added tax (VAT) on goods and services.

Public finance, on the other hand, considers how best to use and invest the funds raised through tax revenue – as well as through other government revenues, such as investments, borrowings, commercial enterprises, and partnerships – in the interest of individuals, businesses, and wider, macroeconomic stability.

Choosing what to spend public money on

Decisions on how public money is spent are made by ministers appointed by the Prime Minister. Ministers – each have a direct responsibility for a governmental department andare responsible for the public policy direction and business within their departments. They are, effectively, the most influential policymakers in government, but are also required to heed the advice of their accounting officers with regards to conducting public business, and must gain parliamentary approval for government spending.

It’s worth noting that ministers’ policies are typically aligned with the direction, priorities, and – more generally – their party’s policy platform or manifesto. Crucially, the party that forms the government is democratically elected by citizen voters on the basis of its manifesto.

Other potential influencers of policies and public spending include:

  • think-tanks
  • unions
  • the media
  • special interest groups
  • wider public opinion

Determining how best to fund and deliver public services

Ministerial departments have considerable control over how they distribute and allocate their budgets. However, while they are largely free to organise, manage, and spend their resources, they are also subject to:

  • parliamentary standards
  • the direction of their ministers
  • adequate controls and reporting arrangements

Within each ministerial department is a departmental board, chaired by the senior minister, that leads on how to fund and deliver public services. These plans are then put into motion by departmental staff and civil servants. 

Additionally, HM Treasury is tasked with ensuring that departments raise revenue and spend resources only within agreed limits, and for setting the ground rules for the administration of public money.

Distributing income

Income distribution occurs when public funds are transferred from one group or area to another. For example, money raised through taxation can used to fund:

  • state pensions
  • public education
  • infrastructure projects
  • healthcare
  • initiatives for tackling climate change
  • benefits programmes such as Universal Credit

Distributing income in this manner works to alleviate income inequality and ensure a good quality of life for all people. Economists typically explore income distribution through the lens of a country’s total gross domestic product (GDP), and how this is distributed among its people.

Stabilising the economy

Well-managed public sector finance is credited with helping to ensure economic stability and even economic growth.

For example, it can contribute to:

  • stable prices – rather than inflation – in key markets
  • lower interest rates
  • increased private investment and savings
  • reduced public debt, budget deficits, and associated interest
  • robust social programmes and social services that enhance health and well-being, and in turn allow for spending reductions in areas such as social care and healthcare in the long term

What are the principles of public finance?

The UK government’s HM Treasury outlines its principles for managing public resources in its Managing Public Money publication. These principles are:

  • honesty
  • impartiality
  • openness
  • accountability
  • accuracy
  • fairness
  • integrity
  • transparency
  • objectivity
  • reliability

The document goes on to say that these principles are carried out in the spirit of – and to the letter of – the law, as well as in the public interest, to high ethical standards, and achieving value for money. It also notes complementary guidance in the Financial Reporting Council’s (FRC) UK Corporate Governance Code, which applies to central government departments. Among others, the code’s principles include:

  • promoting long-term, sustainable success that contributes to wider society
  • ensuring that necessary resources are in place to meet objectives, and measuring performance against them
  • establishing frameworks for prudent and effective controls so that risk can be assessed and managed
  • effective engagement with, and encouraged participation from, stakeholders
  • workforce policies and practices that are consistent with agreed values

Finally, the Chartered Institute of Public Finance and Accountancy (CIPFA) represents 14,000 members who work in public finance. CIPFA’s Standard of Professional Practice on Ethics is based on five principles:

  1. integrity
  2. objectivity
  3. professional competence and due care
  4. confidentiality
  5. professional behaviours

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One of the core modules on this flexible master’s degree is public finance, so you will examine how the decisions that governments make about public financial management – the revenue they raise and how this revenue is allocated in the form of public spending – are one of the core functions of government. An appreciation of this function is crucial for a full understanding of the role of government and the management of public services. Studying this module, you will develop an understanding of public finance decision making, including an examination of tax avoidance and public debt as major contemporary challenges.

What is global marketing and why is it important?

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Global marketing is the focus on marketing an organisation’s products or services in the international marketplace – and in an increasingly global society, with people more connected than ever before, it’s an increasingly important area of marketing management.

Global marketing sees the world as one unique, individual market. This means that a global business’s marketing messages and approach will be largely the same no matter where in the world they’re seen or heard.

This uniform approach also means that:

  • marketing efforts are typically developed and coordinated from one central location, such as an organisation’s headquarters, rather than within individual markets
  • products and services are largely the same regardless of location – for example, the ingredients and process used to make a can of Coca-Cola are the same in all countries
  • marketing campaigns and brand imagery are typically the same in all countries.

Global marketing is particularly suited to products and services that have universal appeal, and where market research has indicated the products or services are likely to be well-received.

What is the difference between global marketing and international marketing?

Global marketing and international marketing are similar in that they are both focused on the development of marketing strategies that reach people around the world.

There is a key difference, though: while global marketing focuses on a single marketing strategy for a worldwide market – effectively treating the world as a single market – international marketing adapts its marketing strategy and tactics for different countries, typically with marketers knowledgeable in specific regions tailoring marketing activities to suit different markets, different languages, and different cultures. 

It’s worth noting, though, that marketing in a global society doesn’t have to be an either/or proposition, with global marketing on one side, international marketing on the other, and no common ground between. For example, in an article in the Harvard Business Review, John Quelch and Edward J. Hoff at Harvard Business School argued that a global approach can fall anywhere on a spectrum:

“In applying the global marketing concept and making it work, flexibility is essential,” they wrote. “Managers need to tailor the approach they use to each element of the business system and marketing program. For example, a manufacturer might market the same product under different brand names in different countries or market the same brands using different product formulas.”

What are the benefits of global marketing?

Global marketing offers a number of advantages. For example, running a single marketing campaign that aims to appeal to all consumers, rather than several campaigns that are adapted to different target markets, means that businesses can achieve huge cost savings and reduce spend on marketing. They can also benefit from the economies of scale that come with increased production to meet global market demands.

Other benefits can include the following.

Wider audience and expanded customer base

Appealing to the international marketplace means that international brands and even small businesses can grow beyond the limits of their domestic market borders. This diversification also means that organisations are less reliant on single markets – particularly uncertain or volatile ones.

Enhanced brand awareness and reputation

World-wide brands and global companies often have a competitive advantage simply due to familiarity, name recognition, and ease of access.

Additional insight

With a larger target audience and customer base comes more opportunities to gather insight and feedback – especially in online spaces such as social media, where people are more likely to engage with globally recognised brands.

Global marketing strategies

In many ways, a global marketing strategy is like any other marketing strategy. It should outline the four Ps of any marketing mix – product, price, place, and promotion – and take an evidenced-based approach to decision making.

A strong global marketing strategy should also:

  • be underpinned by a strong, consistent global brand that will resonate with audiences around the world
  • include a strong digital component to strengthen the organisation’s reach to people in any country
  • be flexible enough to adjust where required, particularly where cultural differences and sensitivities might arise

Real-world examples of global marketing 

Here are a couple of commonly cited examples of global marketing.

Nike

Nike has grown to become one of the most recognised brands on the planet through a combination of global marketing tactics, and strategic international sponsorships and partnerships that appeal to audiences around the world. Nike was one of the earliest adopters of digital marketing such as email marketing and social media marketing.

Coca-Cola

Coca-Cola is ubiquitous in dozens of countries thanks to its global marketing practices. Its brand, taste, and marketing are more or less identical whether you buy a bottle in New York or Hong Kong.

What does the term “glocal” mean and how is it used in global marketing?

Glocal is a combination of global and local. It’s a concept used in more flexible global marketing strategies where there’s a mix of standardised product offerings and marketing as well as local market or local culture components.

For example, a McDonald’s Big Mac sandwich is the same whether someone is in the United Kingdom or any other country – except in India, where the beef is replaced with a vegetarian alternative – but McDonald’s also has glocal, or region-specific menu items. These have included:

  • the McArabia, a pita bread sandwich specific to McDonald’s restaurants in the Middle East
  • McSpaghetti, a pasta menu item specific to McDonald’s restaurants in the Philippines
  • the Teritama burger, a spring menu item at McDonald’s restaurants in Japan; Japanese customers also have an autumn option – the Tsukimi burger
  • the Cheddar McMelt – a burger with extra cheese, onions, and soy sauce – specific to McDonald’s restaurants in Brazil

Challenges in global marketing

Cultural barriers are one of the biggest challenges in global marketing. For example, marketing messages that are appropriate in Sweden might not translate in South Korea and vice versa. So, even the most standardised global marketing strategies need a degree of flexibility. A multinational or international business should also be aware of important cultural and religious events, such as Christmas, Ramadan, and so on.

Businesses should also be mindful of different laws and legislation in different countries and foreign markets. Regulations can differ in everything from advertising standards to ingredients – not to mention taxes – so being aware of these differences before launching into new markets is crucial.

Explore marketing management for businesses in global settings

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Marketing in a global society is one of the key modules on this programme, so you’ll examine global marketing in business and explore the marketing challenges that all organisations face. You will also develop the capacity to learn and engage with the opportunities and challenges of communicating brand images and corporate values across national, linguistic, and cultural borders to a variety of consumers, and consider a variety of methods, including new social media, as a mechanism of distributing knowledge and information.