Software is what most people interact with when they use a computer or mobile device. Written in programming code, software is the set of instructions that enable computer hardware, systems, programmes, and applications to operate and perform tasks. 

Types of software 

There are several different types of software, all serving different functions. The software systems used today can largely be categorised into a few key areas:

• system software
• application software
• utility software
• programming software.

System software

System software manages a computer system’s resources. It works in partnership with computer hardware and other software – such as applications – to provide the end-user interface.

Examples of system software include:

Operating systems

An operating system, or OS, is one of the most important pieces of software on a computer, managing all of the other computer programmes installed on the device. Popular examples include Microsoft Windows, Mac OS, Android OS, and Linux.

Application software typically uses an application programme interface (API) to interact with the OS. Users, meanwhile, interact with the operating system itself through one of two user interfaces:

• a command-line interface (CLI) user interface, such as MS-DOS
• more commonly, a graphical user interface (GUI), such as Windows

Device drivers

Driver software manages any device or peripherals that connect to a computer. For example, a printer connected to a computer will need an appropriate driver in order to work as expected. 

Other devices that require drivers include:

• computer mice
• keyboards
• speakers and headphones
• modems and routers
• sound cards
• USB storage devices.

Firmware

Firmware is an essential piece of software because it ensures that hardware works as it’s intended, and manages some of the most basic functions of a machine. Firmware is typically embedded and installed directly into a piece of hardware by its manufacturer. Once a device is switched on, firmware is what boots up the computer by initialising its hardware components and loading its operating system. 

Application software

Application software is responsible for performing specific tasks and functions for users. Rather than managing how the computer or device operates, this type of software is designed and developed according to the specifications and needs of people using the machines.

Examples of application software include:

Web browsers

Web browsers, such as Google Chrome or Apple’s Safari, are software applications that allow people to access and use the web. Anyone accessing a standard website uses a web browser to do so.

Word processors

Word processors, used to write and edit text, are among the oldest computer applications. Examples include Microsoft Word and Google Docs.

Multimedia software

Multimedia applications are used to view, create, edit, and manage media content. This includes:

• images
• videos
• audio.

Windows Media Player, iTunes, and Adobe PhotoShop are all examples of multimedia software. When referring specifically to graphics content, such as videos, images, infographics, and so on, the term graphics software is also applicable.

Communication software

Any computer programme that’s used to communicate with other people – including through text, audio, and video – is an example of communication software. This includes:

• Microsoft Outlook and Teams
• Skype
• Zoom.

Utility software

Utility software is often considered a subtype of system software, but its focus is specifically on helping to configure, maintain, or optimise a computer’s hardware and software architecture.

Examples of utility software include:

Security software

Security software, such as antivirus software, protects a device’s hardware and software from viruses and other threats. It ideally monitors a computer in real time, scanning existing programmes, incoming files and downloads, and shielding against any attacks by cybercriminals.

File compression software

Compression software helps condense files and other data so it takes up less storage space on a device. These tools also ensure condensed data can be safely managed and restored to its original format when required.

Middleware

Middleware straddles systems and application software, and effectively enables different computer programmes to interact with one another. According to IBM, middleware “enables developers to build applications without having to create a custom integration every time they need to connect to application components (services or microservices), data sources, computing resources or devices.”

Programming software

Programming software is what programmers and developers use to write code and develop new software programmes.

Examples of programming software include:

Programming language translators

Computing or programming language translators can translate one form of code into other programming languages. There are three main types:

1. Compilers, which convert whole programmes written in programming languages, such as Java or C++, into machine language.
2. Assemblers, which convert code in assembly languages into machine language.
3. Interpreters, which can execute instructions written in a programming or scripting language, rather than requiring that these languages be first compiled into machine code enabling rapid programme development, ease of use, portability, and safety.

Debuggers

Debugging tools are used by programmers to test for – and then resolve – errors and issues within programmes. 

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For further information about tuition fees, English language requirements, coursework, and other courses available with the Department of Computer Science at the University of York, please visit the University of York website.

Software development is the area of computer science focused on designing, building, implementing, and supporting computer software. Software is what enables systems and applications to operate and perform tasks, which means that software development is an essential role in the technology sector and other digital industries.

According to IBM, software development is typically done by programmers, software engineers, and software developers, with plenty of interaction and overlap between these roles.

Programmers, often referred to as coders, write code and typically receive instructions from software developers and engineers.

Software developers are more actively involved than programmers in steering software development. While they may assist in writing code, they can also assist in turning requirements into features, managing development processes, and testing and maintaining developed software.

Software engineers are solutions-focused and apply scientific engineering principles to build software and systems that solve problems. 

It’s worth noting, however, that the essential skills needed for successful software development remain constant regardless of who is doing the development work. So whether a person is a programmer, software developer, or software engineer, they will still need to develop a number of important technical and interpersonal abilities.

Technical knowledge needed for software development

Software development links to several important areas of computer science, so it’s important that software developers have technical skills or knowledge in these core areas.

Programming

Computer programming skills and coding are among the most vital for software development, because they are what allow developers to write the source code for software. Software development typically requires knowledge in programming languages or coding languages such as:

• HTML
• CSS
• Java
• JavaScript
• C#
• C++
• Python
• Ruby

Programmers aren’t expected to know all programming languages, but should definitely specialise in a few of them.

Operating systems

Operating system software controls computer hardware, and enables things such as applications and programmes to run. The most commonly used operating systems include:

• Microsoft Windows
• MacOS
• Linux

Operating systems on mobile devices, meanwhile, are typically either iOS or Android.

Version control

Also known as source control or source control management (SCM), version control ensures that code revisions during software development – both front-end and back-end development, as well as other types of development work, such as web development – are tracked. This means that multiple developers can work on a project simultaneously, and that changes can be shared, merged, or rolled back as needed.

The most commonly used version control system is Git, a free and open-source tool used to manage and track source code history. Git repositories can be managed through cloud-based hosting services such as GitHub, GitLab, and Apache Subversion (SVN).

Algorithms and data structures

Software is often optimised through algorithms and data structures. Data structures provide organisational frameworks for storing information, and algorithms are commonly used to sort data. Together, they can ensure software performs efficiently and effectively.

Database management

Software development will inevitably require interaction with an organisation’s database, which means software developers must be able to insert, alter, update, delete, secure, and retrieve data from within a database. This typically requires familiarity with structured query language (SQL) databases, such as MySQL or Oracle.

Integrated development environments (IDEs)

An integrated development environment, or IDE, is a user-friendly environment for software development. An IDE typically includes a source code editor, debug tool, and compiler, among other useful tools. Popular examples include Eclipse and Visual Studio.

Containers

Knowing how to use development containers, such as Docker, is becoming one of the fundamentals among software engineer skills. Containers package up software code and all dependencies so that the application can be deployed efficiently and reliably.

Current and emerging tech trends

As technology continues to rapidly evolve, so too must software engineers and developers. There are a number of growing areas within software development, such as the following.

• Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning: AI and machine learning have grown significantly in the past decade, and this trend is expected to continue as organisations and businesses continue to expand their use in areas such as automation and personalisation. 
• Cloud computing: Cloud-based platforms offer computer resources – particularly data storage – remotely. Commonly used cloud platforms include Amazon Web Services (AWS) and Microsoft Azure.
• Blockchain: Blockchain is the technology that supports cryptocurrencies, but its applications across all sectors and industries are virtually limitless.

Interpersonal skills needed for software development

There are several non-technical but still essential software developer skills. These interpersonal skills can help ensure that business requirements are clearly understood and met, that project management runs smoothly and seamlessly, and that issues are quickly identified and resolved.

Teamwork

Professional software development is rarely, if ever, done in true isolation. The development process usually requires a development team to support everything from initial design ideas to testing and maintaining the software. Team members may be called upon to collaborate together, so it’s important that developers understand how to interact respectfully and productively with one another, with a focus on cooperation and problem-solving.

Communication

Communication skills are among the most important interpersonal abilities or soft skills a software developer needs. Good communication ensures that requirements are fully understood, and that challenges can be clearly articulated and addressed. This is particularly important in fields such as software development, where ideas and information are often complex, and clear feedback is required at most stages of the process.

Attention to detail

A software development project typically has several moving pieces, so it’s important that software engineers and developers can keep a close eye on small details that could create large issues if not addressed early on.

Start your career in software development

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You will also study other key areas required for software development, such as advanced programming, computer architecture and operating systems, algorithms and data structures, and artificial intelligence and machine learning.

This flexible degree has been designed for working professionals and graduates who may not currently have a computer science background but want to launch a career in the cutting-edge field. You can learn part-time around your current work and home commitments, and because the degree is taught exclusively online, you can study whenever and wherever you want.

E-commerce, streaming platforms, work, social media, communication – whatever we’re using the internet for, we’re using it on a widespread, wide-ranging and constant basis.

DataReportal states that most of the connected post-pandemic world continues to grow faster than it did previously. Their Digital 2022 Global Overview Report, published in partnership with Hootsuite and We Are Social, states:

• There are 4.95 billion internet users, accounting for 62.5 per cent of the global population.
• Internet users grew by 192 million over the past 12 months.
• The typical global internet user spends almost seven hours per day using the internet across all devices, with 35 per cent of that total focused on social media.
• The number of people who remain “unconnected” to the internet has dropped below 3 billion for the first time.

With faster mobile connections, more powerful devices set to become even more accessible and more of our lives playing out digitally than ever before, greater convergence across digital activities is likely. Our reliance on it? Greater still.

But what of the structures and processes behind these billions of daily interactions? And just how many of us actually know how the internet works? Individuals with the skills and specialist expertise in the computer science space are in high demand across a huge range of industries – and there’s never been a better time to get involved.

What is internet protocol?

Cloudflare defines internet protocol (IP) as a set of rules for routing and addressing packets of data so that they can travel across networks and arrive at the correct destination. Essentially, it’s a communications protocol. Data packets – smaller pieces of data that traverse the internet that have been divided from greater quantities – each have IP information attached to them. It’s this IP information that routers use to ensure IP packets are data transferred to the right places.

Each device and each domain that has the ability to access the internet has a designated IP address in order for internet communication to work. As packets are sent to IP addresses, the information and data, therefore, arrives at its intended destination. IP is a host-to-host protocol, used to deliver a packet from a source host to a destination host.

There are two different versions of IP, providing unique IP identifiers to cover all devices: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 – a 32-bit addressing scheme to support 4.3 billion devices – was originally thought to be sufficient to meet users’ needs, however the explosion in both number of devices and internet usage has meant it’s no longer enough. Enter IPv6 in 1998, a 128-bit addressing scheme to support 340 trillion trillion devices.

The OSI model

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) network model is a conceptual framework that divides telecommunications and networking into seven layers.

 Each of the seven layers is tasked with its own function:

• Physical – represents the electrical and physical system representation.
• Data link – provides node-to-node data transfer and handles error correction from the physical layer.
• Network – responsible for data packet forwarding and routing through different routers.
• Transport – coordinates data transfer between end systems and hosts.
• Session – a session allows two devices to communicate with each other, and involves set-up, coordination and termination.
• Presentation – designated with the preparation, or translation, of application format into network format, or vice versa. For example, data encryption and decryption.
• Application – closest to the end-user, application involves receiving information from users and displaying incoming data to users. For example, web browsers are communications that rely on layer seven.

The OSI model is valuable in understanding technical and security risks and vulnerabilities as it identifies where data resides, offers an inventory of applications, and facilitates understanding of cloud infrastructure migrations.

Transport protocols and other types of protocol

After a packet arrives at its destination, it’s handled accordingly by the transport layer – the fourth later in the OSI model – and the corresponding transport protocol, being used in relation to the IP. Transport layer protocols are port-to-port protocols working on top of internet protocols to deliver the data packet from the origin port to the IP services, before delivering it from the IP services to the destination port.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) represent the transport layer. TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that provides complete transport layer services to applications – often referred to as Transmissions Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, TCP/ICP or the internet protocol suite. It features stream data transfer, reliability, flow control, multiplexing, logical connections, and full duplex. UDP provides non-sequenced transport functionality and is a connectionless protocol. It’s valuable when speed and size can be prioritised over security and reliability. The packet it produces is an IP datagram containing source port address, destination port address, total length and checksum information.

Other common types of protocol include:

• File Transfer Protocol (FTP), where users transfer multimedia, text, programme and document files to each other.
• Post Office Protocol (POP), for receiving incoming email communications.
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS), which transfers hypertext, the latter of which is encrypted.
• Telnet, which provides remote login to connect one system with another.
• Gopher, used for searching, retrieving and displaying documents from isolated web pages and sites.

There is also Ethernet protocol. Ethernet is a method of connecting computers and other devices in a physical space – via packet-based communication – and is often referred to as a Local Area Network (LAN). The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) maintains IEEE 802.3, a working group of standard specifications for Ethernet.

There exist a variety of other protocols that co-function alongside other primary protocols. These include, for example: ARP; DHCP; IMAP4; SIP; SMTP; RLP; RAP; L2TP; and TFTP.

Understand the internet protocol requirements of your business

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Every computer, from the simple device to the most complex machine, operates according to its architecture. This architecture – the rules, methods, and procedures that tell the computer system what to do and how to work – can be broken into three main sub-categories.

Instruction set architecture

An instruction set architecture, or ISA, is a collection of instructions that a computer processor reads. It outlines how the central processing unit (CPU) is controlled by its software, and effectively acts as the interface between the machine’s hardware components and its software. In fact, the instruction set architecture provides the only means of interacting with the hardware, visible to assembly language programmers, compilers, and application managers.

There are two main types of instruction classifications:

• Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC), which implements only the single instruction formats that are frequently used in computer programmes. These include what’s known as MIPS (microprocessor without interlocked pipelined stages), which was developed by John Hennessy at Stanford University in the 1980s.
• Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC), which can implement several specialised instructions.

The ISA also defines and supports a number of key elements within the CPU, such as:

Data types

Supported data types are defined by the instruction set architecture. This means that through the ISA, a computer will understand the type of data item, its values, the programming languages it uses, and what operations can be performed on or through it.

Registers

Registers store short-term data and manage the hardware’s main memory – the random access memory (RAM). They are located within processors, microprocessors, microcontrollers, and so on, and store instructions for decoding or executing commands. Registers include:

• the programme counter (PC), which indicates where a computer is in its programme sequence. The PC may also be referred to as the instruction pointer (IP), instruction address register (IAR), the instruction counter, or the instruction sequencer. 
• the memory address register (MAR), which holds the address of an instruction’s related data.
• the memory data register (MDR), which stores the data that will be sent to – or fetched from – memory.
• the current instruction register (CIR), which stores the instructions that are currently being decoded and executed by the central processing unit.
• the accumulator (ACC), which stores the results of calculations.
• the interrupt control register (ICR), which generates interrupt signals to tell the central processing unit to pause its current task and start executing another.

Key features

The instruction set architecture outlines how the hardware will support fundamental features, such as:

• Memory consistency models, which essentially guarantee that if a programmer follows set rules for operations on memory, then memory will be consistent, and the results of reading, writing, or updating memory will be predictable.
• Memory addressing modes, which are the methods used for locating data and instructions from the RAM or the cache. Mode examples include immediate memory access, direct memory access, indirect memory access, and indexed memory access.
• Virtual memory, also known as virtual storage, which utilises both hardware and software to allow a computer to temporarily transfer data from RAM to disk.

Microarchitecture

Also called computer organisation, microarchitecture is an important sub-category of computer architecture. There is an inherent interconnection between the microarchitecture and the instruction set architecture, because the microarchitecture outlines how a processor implements its ISA.

Important aspects of microarchitecture include:

• Instruction cycles. These are the steps required to run programmes: reading and decoding an instruction; finding data associated with the instruction; processing the instruction; and then writing out the results.
• Multicycle architecture. Multicycle architectures are typically the smallest and simplest architectures because they recycle the minimum required number of logic design elements in order to operate. 
• Instruction pipelining. Instruction pipelining is a tool for improving processor performance because it allows several instructions to occur at the same time.

System design

System design incorporates all of a computer’s physical hardware elements, such as its data processors, multiprocessors, and graphic processing units (GPUs). It also defines how the machine will meet user requirements. For example, which interfaces are used, how data is managed, and so on. In fact, because of its link with meeting specified user requirements, system design is often mentioned alongside product development and marketing.

Other types of computer architecture

Von Neumann Architecture

Also known as Princeton architecture, the Neumann model of computer architecture was developed by John von Neumann in the 1940s. It outlines a model of computer architecture with five elements:

1. A processing unit that has both an arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) as well as processors with attached registers.
2. A control unit that can hold instructions in the programme counter or the instruction register.
3. Memory that stores data and instructions, and communicates through connections called a data bus, address bus, and control bus.
4. External mass storage, or secondary storage.
5. Mechanisms for input/output devices.

Harvard Architecture

Harvard architecture uses separate memory storage for instructions and for data. This differs from, for example, Von Neumann architecture, with programme instructions and data sharing the same memory and pathways.

Single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) architecture

Single instruction, multiple data processing computers can process multiple data points simultaneously. This paved the way for supercomputers and other high-performance machines, at least until developers at organisations like Intel and IBM started moving into multiple instruction, multiple data (MIMD) models.

Multicore architecture

Multicore architecture uses a single physical processor to incorporate the core logic of more than one processor, with the aim of creating systems that complete multiple tasks at the same time in the name of optimisation and better overall system performance.

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Data is a core component of virtually every computer programme and software system – and data structures are what store, organise, and manage that data. Data structures ensure that different data types can be efficiently maintained and accessed, and effectively processed and used, in order to perform both basic operations and advanced tasks.

There are different data structure types – some basic and some more complex – that have been designed to meet different requirements, but all of them typically ensure that data can be understood by both machines and humans, and then used in specific ways for specific purposes.

But to understand the different types of data structures, it’s important to first understand the different types of data.

What are the different data types?

Data types are the foundation of data structures. They are what tell the computer compiler or interpreter – which translates programming languages such as Java, JavaScript and Python into machine code – how the programmer intends to use the data. They typically fall into one of three categories.

Primitive data types

Primitive data types are the most basic building blocks of data, and include:

• Boolean, which has two possible values – true or false
• characters, such as letters and numerals
• integers and integer values, which are whole numbers that do not contain a fraction
• references (also called a pointer or handle), which allow a computer programme to refer to data stored elsewhere, such as in the computer’s memory
• floating-point numbers, which are numbers that include a decimal
• fixed-point numbers, which are numbers that include a decimal up to a fixed number of digits

Composite data types

Also known as compound data types, composite data types combine different primitive data types. They include:

• arrays, which represent a collection of elements, such as values or variables
• records, which group several different pieces of data together as one unit, such as names and email addresses housed within a table
• strings, which order data in structured sequences

What is an associative array?

An associative array – also called maps, symbol tables, or dictionaries – is an array that holds data in pairs. These pairs contain a key and a value associated with that key.

Abstract data types

Abstract data types are defined by their behaviour, and include:

• queues, which order and update data using a first-in-first-out (FIFO) mechanism
• stacks, which order and update data using a last-in-first-out (LIFO) mechanism
• sets, which can store unique values without a particular order or sequence

What are the different types of data structures?

There are several different structures that store data items and process them, but they typically fall into one of two categories: linear data structures or non-linear data structures.

The data structure required for any given project will depend upon the operation of the programme or software, or the kinds of sorting algorithms that will be used. 

Examples of linear data structures

Array data structures

Like array data types, array data structures are made up of a collection of elements, and are among the most important and commonly used data structures. Data with an array structure is stored in adjoining memory locations, and each element is accessed with an index key.

Linked list data structures

Linked list data structures are similar to arrays in that they are a collection of data elements, however, the order of these elements is not determined by their place within the machine’s memory allocation. Instead, each element – or node – contains a data item and a pointer to the next item. 

Doubly linked list data structures

Doubly linked lists are more complex than singly linked lists – a node within the list contains a pointer to both the previous node and the next node. 

Stack data structures

Stacks structure data in a linear format, and elements can be inserted or removed from just one side of the list – the top – following the LIFO principle.

Queue data structures

Queues are similar to stacks, but elements can only be inserted or removed from the rear of the list, following the FIFO principle. There are also priority queues, where values are removed on the basis of priority.

Examples of non-linear data structures

Tree data structures

Trees store elements hierarchically and in a more abstract fashion than linear structures. Each node within the structure has a key value, and a parent node will link to child nodes – like branches on a family tree. There are a number of different types of tree structures, including red-black tree, AVL tree, and b-trees.

What is a binary tree?

Binary trees are tree data structures where each node has a maximum of two child nodes – a left child and a right child.

They are not to be confused with binary search trees, which are trees that are structured to be increasingly complex – a node is always more complex than the node that came before it, and the structure’s time complexity to operate will be directly proportional to the height of the tree.

Graph data structures

Graph structures are made up of a set of nodes – known as vertices – that can be visualised like points on a graph, and are connected by lines known as edges. Graph data structures follow the mathematical principles of graph theory. 

Hash data structures

Hash data structures include hash lists, hash tables, hash trees, and so on. The most commonly known is the hash table, also referred to as a hash map or dictionary, which can store large amounts of data, and maps keys to values through a hash function. They also employ a technique called chaining to avoid collisions, which can occur when two keys are hashed to the same index within the hash table.

Dig deeper into data structures

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